Anti-iNFLammatory Drugs

Cox-1 is responsible for homeostatic functions in the GI tract, renal tract, platelet function, and macrophage differentiation. Cox-1 is an enzyme that is constitutively expressed in various tissues and is involved in the production of prostaglandins. Prostaglandins play a crucial role in maintaining the normal functions of the gastrointestinal tract, such as protecting the stomach lining and regulating blood flow. They also regulate renal blood flow and are involved in platelet aggregation and macrophage differentiation. Cox-2, on the other hand, is an inducible enzyme that is primarily involved in inflammation and pain.

NSAIDs (Nonsteroidal anti-inflammatory drugs) inhibit prostaglandin synthesis by blocking the enzymes COX-1 or COX-2. Prostaglandins are responsible for inflammation, pain, and fever. By blocking the COX enzymes, NSAIDs reduce the production of prostaglandins, thus reducing inflammation, pain, and fever. Salicylates, such as aspirin, are a type of NSAID. Corticosteroids, on the other hand, work by suppressing the immune system and have a different mechanism of action.

Cortisol is a hormone produced by the adrenal glands in response to stress. When cortisol levels are high, it can cause increased urination in dogs. Therefore, if a dog is given cortisol, it is likely to result in the dog peeing all over the place. Thus, the statement is true.

All of these substances, including histamine, prostaglandin, and bradykinin, are involved in the inflammatory process. Histamine is released by mast cells and causes blood vessels to dilate, leading to increased blood flow and swelling. Prostaglandins are lipid compounds that promote inflammation by causing blood vessels to dilate and increasing the permeability of blood vessels. Bradykinin is a peptide that causes blood vessels to dilate and increases vascular permeability, leading to swelling and pain. Therefore, all of these substances play a role in the inflammatory process.

Giving H2 antagonists or omeprazole along with NSAIDs can help lower gastric pH and reduce the risk of gastric ulcers. H2 antagonists block the action of histamine, which stimulates acid secretion in the stomach, while omeprazole is a proton pump inhibitor that reduces the production of stomach acid. By lowering gastric pH, these medications can help protect the stomach lining from the damaging effects of NSAIDs, which are known to increase the risk of gastric ulcers. Therefore, it is true that giving H2 antagonists or omeprazole along with NSAIDs can lower the chance of gastric ulcers.

Cox-2 causes inflammation of the stomach and is referred to as the "bad" prostaglandin.

Flunixin meglumine is a non-steroidal anti-inflammatory drug (NSAID) commonly used in veterinary medicine to relieve pain and inflammation in dogs and cats. However, prolonged or excessive use of this medication can lead to the development of gastric ulcers in these animals. Therefore, it is important to administer Flunixin meglumine only once and under the guidance of a veterinarian to avoid the risk of gastric ulcers.

DMSO, or dimethyl sulfoxide, can indeed be used intravenously (IV) to treat brain swelling. This is because DMSO has anti-inflammatory properties and can help reduce the swelling in the brain. By administering DMSO through IV, it can quickly reach the affected area and provide relief. Therefore, the statement "DMSO can be used IV to treat brain swelling" is true.

When tissue is damaged, phospholipids in the cell membrane are broken down by the enzyme phospholipase and this produces arachidonic acid. Then the enzyme cyclogenase breaks down arachidonic acid and this produces prostaglandin and thromboxane.

The use of both together INCREASES the chance of GI ulcers because they both inhibit cox-1

Acetylsalicylic acid, commonly known as aspirin, is the correct answer because it is an antipyretic and has the potential to cause decreased platelet aggregation. It also has a relatively short half-life in dogs (3-4 hours) and a longer half-life in cats (24-72 hours). Additionally, one of the side effects of aspirin is the development of gastrointestinal ulcers.

Phenylbutazone is the correct answer because it is a non-steroidal anti-inflammatory drug (NSAID) commonly used in horses to relieve skeletal pain. It has potent analgesic and anti-inflammatory properties, making it effective in reducing pain and inflammation associated with skeletal issues in horses. Aspirin, meloxicam, and carprofen are also NSAIDs, but they are not commonly used in horses for skeletal pain.

The given correct answer states that all of the options listed are Cox-2 inhibitors. Therefore, there is no option that is not a Cox-2 inhibitor.

DMSO (Dimethyl sulfoxide) is a drug that is absorbed through the skin and enters the bloodstream. It is known for its ability to enhance the penetration of other drugs through the skin, making it a common ingredient in topical medications. DMSO has the ability to dissolve both polar and non-polar substances, allowing it to easily pass through the skin barrier and enter the bloodstream, where it can exert its therapeutic effects. Carprofen, aspirin, and prednisolone, on the other hand, are not typically absorbed through the skin and are usually administered orally or through injection.

Phenylbutazone is known to cause sloughing and phlebitis in horses when given perivascularly. This adverse reaction is a result of the drug's irritant properties, which can cause tissue damage and inflammation at the injection site. Ketoprofen, naproxen, tepoxalin, and deracoxib are not associated with this specific adverse effect in horses.

Corticosteroids are a type of steroid hormone that are produced by the adrenal cortex. The adrenal cortex is the outer layer of the adrenal glands, which are small glands located on top of the kidneys. These hormones play a crucial role in regulating various physiological processes in the body, including metabolism, immune response, and stress response. Therefore, it is correct to say that corticosteroids are produced by the adrenal cortex.

Acidic solutions denature the proteins, causing them to bind together and create a wall that inhibit the spread of the solution. Alkaline solutions dissolve proteins, which allows the solution to spread further.

The purpose of inflammation is to dilute, destroy, and isolate the cause of inflammation, as well as to initiate tissue repair. However, alerting the organism of infection is not a purpose of inflammation.

Triamcinolone acetonide is the longest acting cortisone among the given options. It is a synthetic corticosteroid that has a longer duration of action compared to hydrocortisone, prednisolone, and dexamethasone. Triamcinolone acetonide is commonly used in various medical conditions, including allergies, skin disorders, and joint inflammation, due to its sustained release and prolonged effect.

Flunixin meglumine is used in horses to treat musculoskeletal and colic pain as well as endotoxic shock. This drug is a non-steroidal anti-inflammatory drug (NSAID) that works by reducing inflammation and pain. It is commonly used in horses for its analgesic and anti-inflammatory properties. Phenylbutazone, meloxicam, and ketoprofen are also NSAIDs used in horses, but flunixin meglumine is specifically known for its effectiveness in treating colic pain and endotoxic shock in horses.

Histamine is released by mast cells and basophils. Mast cells are found in connective tissues and are responsible for releasing histamine during allergic reactions. Basophils are a type of white blood cell that also release histamine as part of the immune response. Neutrophils and lymphocytes are not involved in histamine release.

During inflammation, the body's immune response is triggered, leading to the release of inflammatory mediators. One of these mediators is histamine, which causes vasodilation. Vasodilation is the widening of blood vessels, allowing increased blood flow to the affected area. This increased blood flow causes redness (rubor) and warmth (calor) in the inflamed area. Therefore, the correct answer is vasodilation.

Meloxicam has the least cox-1 inhibition among the given options. Cox-1 is an enzyme that plays a role in the production of prostaglandins, which are involved in inflammation and pain. Meloxicam is a nonsteroidal anti-inflammatory drug (NSAID) that selectively inhibits cox-2, another enzyme involved in inflammation, while having minimal effect on cox-1. This selective inhibition of cox-2 helps reduce inflammation and pain without causing significant gastrointestinal side effects, which are commonly associated with cox-1 inhibition. Therefore, Meloxicam is considered to have the least cox-1 inhibition among the given options.

They bind the receptors

Triamicinolone aetonide is the correct answer because it is a corticosteroid medication commonly used to treat allergies. It works by reducing inflammation and suppressing the immune system's response to allergens. Hydrocortisone, prednisolone, and dexamethasone are also corticosteroids, but they may not be as commonly used or as effective for allergy treatment as triamicinolone aetonide.

Labradors are sensitive to carprofen, which is a nonsteroidal anti-inflammatory drug (NSAID) commonly used to relieve pain and inflammation in dogs. Labradors, like many other dog breeds, can have a genetic predisposition to certain sensitivities and reactions to medications. Carprofen can cause adverse reactions in Labradors, such as gastrointestinal upset, liver or kidney damage, or even allergic reactions. Therefore, it is important for Labrador owners to be cautious when administering carprofen or any other medication and consult with a veterinarian for proper dosage and monitoring.

DMSO is approved for use in dogs and horses. This means that it is safe and authorized to be used in these animals for various purposes. However, there is no information provided about its approval for use in cats, cattle, or sheep. Therefore, the correct answer is dogs and horses.

Lidocaine neutralizes phenylbutazone.

Mast cells are a type of white blood cells that have migrated onto the tissue.

Phenylbutazone can be given to horses orally (PO) or intravenously (IV). PO administration involves giving the medication by mouth, either in the form of a pill or liquid. IV administration involves injecting the medication directly into a vein. Both routes of administration are commonly used in horses to deliver phenylbutazone and achieve the desired therapeutic effect. Other routes such as intramuscular (IM) or subcutaneous (SQ) are not mentioned as suitable options for administering phenylbutazone to horses in this question.

Salicylates, such as aspirin, are known to inhibit platelet adherence, which means they prevent platelets from sticking together and forming clots. This is achieved by interfering with the production of certain chemicals in the body that are involved in the clotting process. By inhibiting platelet adherence, salicylates effectively increase the clotting time, making it take longer for blood to form clots. This property of salicylates is often utilized in medical treatments to prevent excessive clotting, such as in the case of certain cardiovascular conditions.

NSAIDs (Nonsteroidal anti-inflammatory drugs) are known to have certain side effects. GI ulcers can occur due to the irritation of the lining of the gastrointestinal tract. Kidney problems may arise as NSAIDs can reduce blood flow to the kidneys and impair their function. Clotting failure is another potential side effect as NSAIDs can interfere with blood clotting mechanisms. However, heart murmurs and intestinal inflammation are not commonly associated with the use of NSAIDs.

Diphenhydramine, Chlorpheneramine, Pyrilamine maleate, and Hydroxyzine are all antihistamine drugs that block H1 receptors and prevent the binding of histamine. These drugs are commonly used to treat allergies, as they help reduce symptoms such as itching, sneezing, and runny nose by blocking the effects of histamine in the body.

Cox-1 aids in the repair of the stomach, kidney, liver, and platelets. Cox-1 is an enzyme that is responsible for producing prostaglandins, which are important for maintaining the health and function of these organs and cells. Prostaglandins play a role in promoting blood flow to the stomach and kidneys, protecting the liver from injury, and regulating platelet function. Therefore, Cox-1 is involved in the repair and maintenance of these organs and cells.

Flunixin meglumine is a medication that possesses analgesic, antipyretic, and anti-inflammatory properties. It is commonly used to relieve musculoskeletal and colic pain in horses. Compared to steroids, it is more effective in preventing endotoxic shock in horses.

Ketoprofen and Naproxen are both nonsteroidal anti-inflammatory drugs (NSAIDs) that inhibit the enzymes cyclooxygenase (cox) and lipoxygenase. These enzymes are responsible for the production of inflammatory mediators in the body. Ketoprofen and Naproxen are commonly used in horses for their anti-inflammatory and analgesic properties. They can also be used off-label in cats to treat fever. Additionally, both drugs are effective in relieving musculoskeletal pain in various species.

Corticosteroids have multiple effects on the body, including stabilizing cell membranes, decreasing the release of phospholipids, and inhibiting the secretion of cortisone by inhibiting ACTH release. These actions help to reduce inflammation, scar tissue formation, pruritis, and promote wound healing. However, corticosteroids can also have negative effects such as delaying wound healing, causing Addison's disease, suppressing the immune system, causing GI ulceration and bleeding, and leading to Cushing's syndrome. Additionally, corticosteroids can cause a feeling of euphoria.