1.
Social research is about understanding the world as we live it. When it comes to reveal understanding by measuring things, the research work should be based in observable matters as well as in a capacity of defining variables able to say something about the issue at hand. Which one of the following combinations is to be considered empirical or systematic?
Correct Answer
A. Gather and organize data, and testing hypotheses
Explanation
The combination of gathering and organizing data, and testing hypotheses is considered empirical or systematic because it involves collecting data through observation or experimentation and then analyzing that data to test the hypotheses. This approach is based on evidence and facts rather than relying on inspiration or common knowledge.
2.
What is a most common dilemma related to the study of causal relationships?
Correct Answer
C. Chosen variables may have questionable connection to anticipated relationships.
Explanation
The most common dilemma related to the study of causal relationships is that the chosen variables may have a questionable connection to the anticipated relationships. This means that the variables selected for the study may not accurately reflect the true cause and effect relationship being investigated. This can lead to inaccurate or misleading results, making it difficult to establish a clear understanding of the causal relationship between the variables.
3.
In the social sciences we commonly talk about setting events in theoretically supported perspectives, rather than explaining them using theory. In which of the following alternatives does this argument find support?
Correct Answer
B. The ability of a theory to explain events is limited by the reach and quality of the research supporting it.
Explanation
The argument finds support in the statement "The ability of a theory to explain events is limited by the reach and quality of the research supporting it." This statement suggests that theories may not be able to fully explain events unless there is sufficient research to support them. It implies that setting events in theoretically supported perspectives is a more common approach in the social sciences, as it allows for a more nuanced understanding of the events rather than relying solely on theory-based explanations.
4.
Part I. Methods and their theoretical connection
Theory has a value of its own, but within our course we are interested in its connection to methods. A theoretical approach, however, has implications for the methods used in a research strategy and the other way around. A course goal is to investigate these connections.
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Question: Experiment is a method used in the social sciences (sociology, psychology, etc.). If the researcher is sure that experiments are the only way to get facts about social reality and to find proof of causality, which scientific theoretical tradition does the researcher most certainly belong to? (p. 13, 50-54)
Correct Answer
B. Positivism
Explanation
If the researcher believes that experiments are the only way to obtain facts about social reality and establish causal relationships, they most likely belong to the scientific theoretical tradition of Positivism. Positivism emphasizes the use of empirical methods, such as experiments, to study and understand the social world. It seeks to uncover universal laws and objective truths through systematic observation and measurement.
5.
In the previous question an experimental method (connected to positivism) is higlighted as the best way for the researcher to obtain observable facts, measures, data, and which one values over verbal information. How would you label this approach, which considers only observable phenomena as knowledge? (p.14, 50)
Correct Answer
B. Empiricism
Explanation
The approach that considers only observable phenomena as knowledge is called empiricism. Empiricism emphasizes the importance of gathering evidence through direct observation and experience. It asserts that knowledge should be based on verifiable facts and measurable data rather than abstract concepts or subjective interpretations. This approach aligns with the experimental method mentioned in the previous question, where the researcher obtains observable facts and measures through experimentation.
6.
In the social sciences you may find several schools of thought (presenting grand theories) presenting theories with varying levels of abstraction. It is usually quite hard to connect these schools to a single particular methodological approach. But nevertheless, there are connections. One of the most influential schools is functionalism. Which method would you most probably find used within a functionalist tradition? (p. 124)
Correct Answer
C. Survey
Explanation
Functionalism is a theoretical perspective in the social sciences that focuses on the interdependence of social institutions and their contribution to the overall functioning of society. Surveys are commonly used within a functionalist tradition because they allow researchers to collect data from a large sample of individuals, which can then be analyzed to identify patterns and understand the functioning of society as a whole. Surveys provide a quantitative approach to studying social phenomena and are well-suited for examining broad social patterns and trends, which aligns with the macro-level perspective of functionalism.
7.
In some theoretical traditions “the bottom up” approach is prevailing, which means that it is not the theoretical level that defines the path of the research, but to some extent the field as it reveals itself is the determinant factor. Which of the following theoretical schools regard the actor’s interpretation of his or her actions and its motivational background as the cornerstone of the research? (p. 13-14, 50-54)
Correct Answer
D. pHenomenology
Explanation
Phenomenology regards the actor's interpretation of his or her actions and its motivational background as the cornerstone of the research. This means that in phenomenology, the focus is on understanding the subjective experiences and meanings that individuals attach to their actions, rather than imposing external theories or frameworks. Phenomenology emphasizes the importance of studying phenomena as they are experienced and understood by individuals themselves, rather than from an external, objective perspective.
8.
Which one of the following methods would the phenomenological approach most probably employ, taking “the bottom up” logic into consideration? (p.50)
Correct Answer
D. In-depth semi-structured interviews
Explanation
The phenomenological approach focuses on understanding the lived experiences of individuals and gaining insight into their subjective perspectives. In-depth semi-structured interviews would be the most appropriate method for this approach as it allows for a deep exploration of the individual's experiences, thoughts, and feelings. This method provides the flexibility to delve into specific topics while also allowing the participant to freely express their own unique perspective, aligning with the "bottom-up" logic of the phenomenological approach.
9.
Another theoretical tradition with a “bottom up” logic focus primarily on interaction and on the meanings actors give to interaction. Which of the following would it be? (p. 13, 19, 50, 54)
Correct Answer
A. Symbolic interactionism
Explanation
Symbolic interactionism is a theoretical tradition that focuses on interaction and the meanings actors give to interaction. It emphasizes the importance of symbols and language in shaping social interactions and how individuals interpret and respond to these symbols. This perspective views society as a product of everyday interactions between individuals, and it emphasizes the subjective experiences and perspectives of individuals in understanding social behavior. Symbolic interactionism is different from positivism, phenomenology, and conflict theory, as these theories have different focuses and approaches to understanding social phenomena.
10.
Which method would you most probably use if you want to do research in line with the theoretical tradition of symbolic interactionism? (p. 54)
Correct Answer
B. Participant observation
Explanation
Participant observation would be the most suitable method for conducting research in line with the theoretical tradition of symbolic interactionism. This method involves immersing oneself in the social setting being studied, observing the interactions and behaviors of individuals, and actively participating in the activities of the group. Symbolic interactionism focuses on the meanings and symbols that individuals use to interpret and interact with their social world, and participant observation allows researchers to gain a deep understanding of these meanings and symbols through direct observation and engagement with the participants.
11.
Part II. Between quality and quantity
Qualitative and quantitative approaches are used extensively in the social sciences. In our course we strongly focus on the interactivity between them and the need for research designs utilizing the strengths of them in cooperation. There are a number of methods that are associated with one or the other approach, depending on what kind of data the researcher intend to gather to allow for a specific type of analysis.
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Question: A quantitative approach has several characteristics which make its findings credible. One of them is the harsh requirement of validity already at the design phase. Which of the following questions is the closest to the validity issue? (p. 29-30, 37)
Correct Answer
B. Does the researchers measure what they are supposed to according to their research question?
Explanation
The question is asking which of the following questions is closest to the validity issue in a quantitative approach. Validity refers to whether the researchers are measuring what they are supposed to according to their research question. This is important in ensuring that the data collected is accurate and reliable. The other two options, asking about the possibility of repeating the research in the same settings or in a certain time period and achieving the same result, are not directly related to the validity of the measurement.
12.
There is an important and ongoing discussion of validity and reliability issues in qualitative research methods. Although the nature of the qualitative and quantitative traditions is quite different, some researchers try to make them meet by applying similar quality requirements. One way to “justify” qualitative methods in the research is to perform or at least discuss the possibility of replication. How would you understand the purpose of it? (p.37)
Correct Answer
C. To check the extent to which findings are applicable to other contexts
Explanation
The purpose of replication in qualitative research is to determine the extent to which the findings can be applied to other contexts. Replication allows other researchers to repeat the study in different settings or with different participants to see if similar results are obtained. This helps to establish the generalizability and transferability of the findings beyond the specific study. By replicating the research, it can be determined if the findings hold true in different contexts, strengthening the validity and reliability of the qualitative research methods.
13.
Quantitative methods are believed to lead to findings which are possible to generalize on a population, while findings gained with qualitative methods are problematic to be used in such a fashion. However, there are “techniques” that can be applied to check if a generalization of a case-study is possible. What are they? (p.35)
Correct Answer
A. More than one case is studied, the case is studied by more than one researcher, and the case may be studied as a clustered analysis of typical characteristics
Explanation
The techniques mentioned in the answer suggest ways to check if a generalization of a case-study is possible. By studying more than one case and involving multiple researchers, it helps to ensure that the findings are not limited to a single instance and are more representative of the population. Additionally, studying the case as a clustered analysis of typical characteristics allows for identifying common patterns and trends that can be generalized. Therefore, these techniques provide a systematic approach to ensure the possibility of generalizing findings gained through qualitative methods.
14.
Social researchers tend to take different stand on whether to use predominantly qualitative or quantitative methods in their research. Some of them argue, as we do, for the possibility of a combination. What would such combination depend on? (p.126)
Correct Answer
C. The objective of the study and the specified research questions
Explanation
The combination of qualitative and quantitative methods in social research would depend on the objective of the study and the specified research questions. This means that the decision to use a combination of methods would be based on the goals and objectives of the research, as well as the specific questions that the researcher wants to answer. The choice of methods would be guided by the need to gather both qualitative and quantitative data in order to obtain a comprehensive understanding of the research topic.
15.
Continuing the idea of combinations in the previous question, some researchers choose to validate their findings using an approached called triangulation. How would you define it? (p.130)
Correct Answer
A. Using more than one method
Explanation
Triangulation refers to the practice of using multiple methods in research. It involves combining qualitative and quantitative methods to gather and analyze data, which helps to enhance the validity and reliability of the findings. By using different methods, researchers can cross-validate their results and gain a more comprehensive understanding of the research topic. This approach allows for a more robust and well-rounded investigation, as it takes into account different perspectives and provides a more complete picture of the phenomenon under study.
16.
Theories are tools in our endeavors of systematic understanding the world we live in. There is a specific concept used to describe the process wherein subjective explanations are used to make claims of causal relationships. Which? (p.35, 106, 132)
Correct Answer
C. Inference
Explanation
Inference is the specific concept used to describe the process where subjective explanations are used to make claims of causal relationships. It involves drawing conclusions or making predictions based on evidence or reasoning. Inference allows us to make educated guesses or interpretations about the world around us, even if we don't have all the information.
17.
Part III. Quantitative research methods
It is associated with a number of different approaches and with a number of techniques to collect quantitative data. Quantitative methods are often related to positivistic scientific approach, which argues that methods used in social and natural sciences should be the same. The following questions are related to the measuring of data.
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Question: There are two commonly and widely used quantitative methods. Which are they? (p. 11)
Correct Answer
B. Survey and experiment
Explanation
The correct answer is survey and experiment. Survey is a commonly used quantitative method that involves collecting data from a large sample of respondents through questionnaires or interviews. Experiment is another commonly used quantitative method that involves manipulating variables and measuring their effects on outcomes in a controlled setting. Both survey and experiment are widely used in quantitative research to gather and analyze numerical data.
18.
Unlike “the bottom up” logic of research, as mentioned earlier, most quantitative approaches are top down and start with theory. Below you can see a simplified illustration of a quantitative research process. (Line A is a stage and Line B what is done in the stage). What is missing in the sequences? (p.20)
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Line A: Theory ------ ____ ---- Data collection ---- Data analysis ------ Findings
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Line B: Deduction -- ____ ---- Data processing --- Interpretation ---- Induction
The gap in Line A relates to What you in a quantitive approach have to relate a testing to, while the gap in Line B relates to the process in which you formulate the “what” in Line A.
Correct Answer
B. A: Hypothesis – B: Operationalization
Explanation
In Line A, the missing element is a hypothesis, which is what you have to relate a testing to in a quantitative approach. In Line B, the missing element is operationalization, which is the process of defining and designing the variables and measurements in a study based on the hypothesis.
19.
A concept must go through a process of reformulation in order to be measured:
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The concept --- > dimensions --- > indicators (maybe indices)
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But it is also possible to follow an opposite process (in survey for example) moving from indicators to dimensions. What is such technique called? (p.28, 33)
Correct Answer
B. Factor analysis
Explanation
Factor analysis is a statistical technique used to identify underlying dimensions or factors that explain the relationships among a set of observed variables or indicators. It is often used when moving from indicators to dimensions, as mentioned in the question. By analyzing the patterns of correlations among the indicators, factor analysis helps in identifying the underlying concepts or dimensions that these indicators represent. Therefore, factor analysis is the appropriate technique for the opposite process of moving from indicators to dimensions.
20.
The preoccupation of quantitative scientists in making the world measurable has brought them to lengthy discussions of consistency in both scaling and timing. The issue is to make the results trustworthy. What concept captures this? (p 30-31, 35)
Correct Answer
C. Reliability
Explanation
The concept that captures the preoccupation of quantitative scientists in making the world measurable and ensuring trustworthy results is reliability. Reliability refers to the consistency and stability of measurements, indicating that the same results would be obtained if the measurement was repeated under the same conditions. By focusing on reliability, scientists aim to ensure that their findings are accurate and can be trusted.
21.
An old maxim is that correlation cannot imply cause. However, there are three main conditions that have to be met to claim causality. Two are; there must be relationship between variables, and the temporal order has to be established between variables. Which one is the third? (p. 31)
Correct Answer
C. That a relationship between two variables is not produced by a third one
Explanation
The third condition for claiming causality is that the relationship between two variables should not be produced or influenced by a third variable. This means that the observed relationship between the two variables should not be a result of any other factor or variable that is not being considered in the analysis. This condition helps to ensure that the relationship between the two variables is not spurious and can be attributed to a direct causal link.
22.
Part IV. Qualitative research methods
Qualitative research gained its popularity when an increasing disillusionment with the outcomes of the “scientific approach” was emerging and a promotion of self-reflection emerged. The qualitative approach commitment to view things from the subject’s perspective is a fundamental characteristic.
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Question: There are several techniques closely associated with a qualitative research approach. Which are they? (p. 46)
Correct Answer
A. In-depth interviews, text analyses and participant observations
Explanation
The techniques closely associated with a qualitative research approach are in-depth interviews, text analyses, and participant observations. These methods allow researchers to gather rich and detailed information about the subject's perspective and experiences. In-depth interviews involve open-ended questions and allow for a deeper understanding of the participant's thoughts and feelings. Text analyses involve examining written or verbal data to identify themes and patterns. Participant observations involve immersing oneself in the research setting and observing the participants' behaviors and interactions. These techniques help researchers gain an in-depth understanding of the subject's perspective and provide valuable insights into their experiences.
23.
Qualitative methods are sometimes intertwined or systematically combined, thus helping to grasp “the real world” better. A researcher may take on several different roles. As a “total researcher” you may on distance observe a village festival, and as a “researcher participant” you may be part in festival committee meeting as an observant. What could be expected from you as a “total participant”?
Correct Answer
C. Be the guest at the village wedding
Explanation
As a "total participant," you would be expected to fully immerse yourself in the village wedding as a guest. This means actively participating in the wedding rituals, interacting with other guests, and experiencing the event firsthand. This role allows the researcher to gain a deep understanding of the cultural practices, traditions, and social dynamics within the community. By being present and engaged in the wedding, the researcher can gather rich qualitative data and insights that would not be possible through distant observation or limited involvement.
24.
A qualitative approach does not accept an assumption that people are to be understood only through observed facts and processes. How would a phenomenological approach explain that? (p.50)
Correct Answer
A. People make the world meaningful through interpretation, thus research needs to focus on these experiences to capture a social reality
Explanation
A phenomenological approach would explain that a qualitative approach is necessary because it recognizes that people make the world meaningful through their interpretations and experiences. This approach emphasizes the importance of understanding individuals' subjective perspectives and how they shape their social reality. By focusing on these experiences, researchers can gain a deeper understanding of the complexities of human behavior and decision-making.
25.
What method is closely related to the phenomenological approach? (p. 52)
Correct Answer
B. Participant observation
Explanation
Participant observation is closely related to the phenomenological approach because both methods involve immersing oneself in the social context being studied and gaining an in-depth understanding of the experiences and perspectives of the individuals involved. In participant observation, the researcher actively participates in the social setting, observing and interacting with the participants to gain insights into their subjective experiences. Similarly, the phenomenological approach aims to understand the subjective meanings and interpretations that individuals give to their lived experiences. Both methods emphasize the importance of understanding the social world from the perspective of the individuals being studied.
26.
Within “the bottom up” tradition of symbolic interactionism a famous dictum by Thomas prevails saying: “If men define situations as real, they are real in their consequences”. Which two processes are involved in directing behavior in line with this dictum? (p. 52)
Correct Answer
A. Examination and deliberation
Explanation
The correct answer is examination and deliberation. According to the dictum by Thomas, if individuals perceive a situation as real, their behavior and actions will be influenced accordingly. Examination refers to the process of carefully analyzing and assessing a situation, while deliberation involves thoughtful consideration and discussion before making a decision or taking action. These two processes play a crucial role in directing behavior in line with the dictum, as individuals need to examine and deliberate on the perceived reality of a situation in order to determine their course of action.
27.
Max Weber recognizes two forms of understanding in his theorizing arriving at a causal explanation of social action: direct and explanatory understanding. The first would help to understand the meaning of a given act and the second to understand the actual course of action. What combination of methods would a researcher most probably use to reach both forms of understanding? ( p. 56)
Correct Answer
A. Observation + experiment
Explanation
A researcher would most probably use a combination of observation and experiment to reach both forms of understanding. Observation allows the researcher to directly observe and understand the meaning of a given act, while experiment allows the researcher to understand the actual course of action by manipulating variables and observing the outcomes. By combining these two methods, the researcher can gain a comprehensive understanding of social action and its causes.
28.
There is a naturalistic trait within the qualitative tradition. It holds that the researcher should treat a phenomenon as naturally as possible to minimize disturbances in a setting. Which method would you apply in order to fulfill such a requirement? (p. 57)
Correct Answer
C. Participant observation.
Explanation
Participant observation would be the method to apply in order to fulfill the requirement of treating a phenomenon as naturally as possible and minimizing disturbances in a setting. This method involves the researcher actively participating in the setting being studied, observing and interacting with the participants in their natural environment. By immersing themselves in the setting, the researcher can gain a deeper understanding of the phenomenon being studied and capture the natural behaviors and interactions of the participants without disrupting or influencing them.
29.
When the “world-view” of people is a focus for study, it may include a need of capturing multiple world-views (several subjects), which could lead up to a series of complications depending on for example gender, age, race, class characteristics of the researcher. Which one of the following methods can at least partially support a participant researcher in these difficulties of seeing through the eyes of the subject? (p. 61)
Correct Answer
A. Interview
Explanation
Interviews can at least partially support a participant researcher in understanding the world-views of their subjects. Through interviews, researchers can directly engage with participants and gain insights into their perspectives, beliefs, and experiences. This method allows for a deeper understanding of the complexities and nuances of different world-views, including those influenced by gender, age, race, and class. By actively listening and asking relevant questions, the researcher can develop empathy and see through the eyes of the subject, helping to mitigate the potential complications that may arise in studying multiple world-views.
30.
As a researcher in the qualitative tradition is dedicated to the participants’ perspective, the process is believed to be an important component. Life is not static, thus research are not supposed to be so either. What is the kind of research called when research strategy includes investigation throughout a certain time period? (p. 65)
Correct Answer
B. Longitudinal
Explanation
A researcher in the qualitative tradition who is dedicated to the participants' perspective would likely choose a longitudinal research strategy. This type of research involves investigating a particular phenomenon or group of participants over an extended period of time. By conducting research over time, the researcher can gain a deeper understanding of how the phenomenon or participants change and develop over time. This approach aligns with the belief that life is not static and that research should reflect this dynamic nature.