Psych Study Guide: Chapter 9

Schemata are mental models or frameworks that we use to organize and make sense of information. They help us categorize and interpret new information based on our existing knowledge and experiences. Schemata allow us to quickly process and understand new information by fitting it into pre-existing mental frameworks. They are essential for cognitive processes such as perception, memory, and problem-solving.

Secure attachment is a type of infant attachment where the baby feels safe and comfortable with their caregiver, usually the mother, and uses her as a secure base to explore their surroundings. This means that the baby feels confident to explore and interact with the environment, knowing that their caregiver is there for support and comfort if needed. This type of attachment is characterized by a healthy balance between dependence and independence, and is considered to be the most desirable and beneficial for the child's overall development.

The primary developmental task of middle adulthood is generativity vs. stagnation. This stage involves individuals finding their life's work and making meaningful contributions to society. Generativity refers to the desire to leave a lasting impact on future generations, such as through mentoring, volunteering, and raising children. Stagnation, on the other hand, refers to a lack of personal growth and feeling unproductive. In middle adulthood, individuals often reflect on their accomplishments and assess whether they have made a positive difference in the world, which is the central conflict of generativity vs. stagnation.

Kübler-Ross's five-stage model of grief suggests that individuals go through a series of emotional stages when faced with grief or loss. The correct order of these stages is denial, anger, bargaining, depression, and acceptance. In the denial stage, individuals may refuse to believe or accept the reality of the loss. This is followed by anger, where individuals may express frustration and resentment. Bargaining involves attempting to negotiate or make deals to change the outcome. Depression is characterized by feelings of sadness and hopelessness. Finally, acceptance involves coming to terms with the loss and finding a way to move forward.

Assimilation refers to the adjustment of a schema by adding information similar to what is already known. This means that when new information is encountered, it is incorporated into existing knowledge and understanding. Assimilation allows individuals to make sense of new experiences by relating them to their existing mental frameworks. It is a process by which individuals can expand their knowledge and understanding of the world around them.

In early adulthood, individuals are typically ready to form and maintain close emotional relationships with others. This stage is characterized by the primary developmental task of establishing intimacy and avoiding feelings of isolation. During this period, individuals seek to develop deep connections, both romantically and socially, and to form lasting bonds with others. The focus is on building meaningful relationships and avoiding a sense of loneliness or detachment from others.

This attachment can be classified as secure. The child displays distress when the mother leaves, indicating a secure base attachment. Additionally, the child's happiness upon the mother's return suggests a secure attachment as well.

This scenario exemplifies object permanence. Object permanence is the understanding that objects continue to exist even when they are out of sight. In this case, Madeline is aware that the cookie is still under the napkin even though she cannot see it. This demonstrates her understanding of object permanence.

A developmental psychologist might use naturalistic observation in order to observe how children behave on a playground, at a daycare center, or in the child's own home. This method involves observing individuals in their natural environment without any manipulation or interference from the researcher. By observing children in their everyday settings, the psychologist can gain a better understanding of their behavior, interactions, and development. This method allows for a more accurate and realistic representation of how children behave in their natural environment compared to other methods such as experiments or surveys.

Menarche is the onset of menstruation in girls, which typically occurs during puberty. This is a significant milestone in female human development as it marks the beginning of reproductive capability. During puberty, there are various physical and hormonal changes that occur in the body, including the development of secondary sexual characteristics and the maturation of the reproductive system. Therefore, menarche is directly associated with puberty.

This scenario best exemplifies stranger anxiety. Stranger anxiety is a normal developmental stage that infants go through where they become wary and fearful of unfamiliar people. In this case, the daughter's reaction of crying, clinging to her father, and hiding her face when faced with a substitute provider at daycare indicates her discomfort and fear towards someone she does not recognize. This behavior is a common manifestation of stranger anxiety in infants.

The Moro reflex is a normal response in newborn babies when they experience a sudden change in their position or are startled. In this scenario, James almost being dropped triggers his Moro reflex. This reflex is characterized by the baby spreading their arms out, pulling them back in, and crying. It is an instinctual response that helps the baby protect themselves and regain a sense of security after a sudden disturbance.

Sigmund Freud believed that personality develops during early childhood. This is because Freud proposed that the early years of a person's life, specifically the first five years, are crucial in shaping their personality. He argued that experiences and conflicts during this stage, such as the resolution of the Oedipus and Electra complexes, greatly impact the development of the individual's personality. Freud's psychoanalytic theory suggests that early childhood experiences, including interactions with parents and caregivers, play a significant role in shaping an individual's personality traits and behaviors later in life.

The correct order of prenatal development is zygote, embryo, fetus. During fertilization, the sperm and egg combine to form a zygote. The zygote then undergoes cell division and becomes an embryo. As the embryo continues to develop, it eventually becomes a fetus.

Early maturing girls are at a higher risk of depression, substance abuse, and eating disorders. This is because they may face challenges in coping with the physical and emotional changes that come with early puberty. These girls may feel socially isolated or different from their peers, which can contribute to feelings of low self-esteem and increased vulnerability to mental health issues. Additionally, the early onset of puberty may expose them to situations and pressures that they may not be emotionally ready to handle, increasing the likelihood of engaging in risky behaviors such as substance abuse.

Adolescence refers to the period of life that starts at puberty and ends with early adulthood. It is a time of significant physical, emotional, and social changes as individuals transition from childhood to adulthood. During adolescence, individuals experience rapid growth and development, hormonal changes, and the development of sexual characteristics. This period is also characterized by increased independence, identity formation, and exploration of new roles and responsibilities. Therefore, adolescence is the correct answer to the question.

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The zygote is the fertilized egg that forms when a sperm and egg combine. It is the earliest stage of development in humans. The placenta, on the other hand, is an organ that develops during pregnancy and is responsible for providing nourishment and oxygen to the developing embryo or fetus. Therefore, in order to make the sentence true, the word "zygote" should be changed to "placenta" to accurately describe the structure that provides nourishment and oxygen from the mother to the developing embryo.

Children who are developing disorganized attachment to their caregivers most likely have been abused. Abuse can disrupt the formation of secure attachments between children and their caregivers, leading to disorganized attachment. This can occur due to physical, emotional, or sexual abuse, as well as neglect. The trauma experienced from abuse can interfere with a child's ability to trust and form healthy relationships, resulting in disorganized attachment patterns.

Sigmund Freud is attributed to calling the stages of development psychosexual stages. Freud believed that individuals pass through distinct stages of psychosexual development, each characterized by a different focus of pleasure and potential conflict. These stages include the oral, anal, phallic, latency, and genital stages. Freud's theory of psychosexual development has had a significant impact on the field of psychology and continues to be influential in understanding human development.

Ego identity refers to our sense of self, which encompasses our understanding of who we are, our beliefs, values, and goals. It involves the integration of various aspects of our personality and experiences, shaping our identity and guiding our behavior. Ego identity is crucial for establishing a coherent and stable sense of self, allowing us to navigate through life and make meaningful choices.

This parenting style is best described as permissive because Carissa's parents allow her to have a lot of freedom and make her own decisions without much guidance or rules. They act more like friends than authority figures, which is characteristic of permissive parenting.

In psychology, the term "nature" refers to genes, while the term "nurture" refers to the environment. This means that "nature" represents the inherent genetic factors that influence an individual's traits and characteristics, while "nurture" represents the external factors such as upbringing, experiences, and social interactions that shape an individual's development and behavior.

Harlow's studies with monkeys demonstrated that the need for comfort, specifically the comfort of a soft and warm mother figure, was essential for their well-being. In his experiments, he found that the monkeys preferred the comfort of a cloth mother over a wire mother that provided food. This highlighted the importance of emotional attachment and social support in promoting healthy development and overall satisfaction in primates.

After age 65, individuals enter the stage of integrity vs. despair. During this stage, people reflect on their lives and evaluate whether they have lived a meaningful and fulfilling life. They may experience a sense of satisfaction and wisdom if they believe they have made positive contributions to society and have lived according to their values. On the other hand, if they feel a sense of regret and despair, they may struggle to find meaning and purpose in their lives. This stage is characterized by the need to achieve a sense of integrity and acceptance of one's life, rather than succumbing to feelings of despair and disappointment.

This scenario demonstrates accommodation, which is the process of adjusting existing schemas or creating new ones to incorporate new information or experiences. In this case, Gordon initially assimilated tomatoes into his existing schema for apples, but after his mother corrected him, he created a separate schema for tomatoes. This shows that he has accommodated the new information about tomatoes and adjusted his understanding accordingly.

Motor skills refer to our ability to move our bodies and manipulate objects. These skills involve the coordination of muscles and nerves to perform physical tasks such as walking, running, and throwing. Motor skills are essential for everyday activities and are developed through practice and repetition. They play a crucial role in the development of children and are also important for adults in various occupations and sports.

Developmental milestones refer to the significant achievements or abilities that individuals reach at specific ages or stages of development. Crawling, walking, writing, dressing, naming colors, speaking in sentences, and starting puberty are all examples of these milestones. They represent important markers of physical, cognitive, social, and emotional development, and they help professionals and parents track a child's progress and identify any potential delays or concerns. Therefore, the answer "developmental milestones" accurately describes the examples given.

This scenario suggests that Marcy has developed an avoidant attachment style. This is indicated by her lack of reaction to her father leaving the room and her slow response upon his return. These behaviors suggest that Marcy has learned to suppress her attachment needs and has become emotionally distant from her father. She may have learned that her needs will not be consistently met, leading her to develop a self-reliant and independent approach to relationships.

The continuous development approach views development as a cumulative process. This means that development is seen as a result of the accumulation of knowledge, skills, and experiences over time. It suggests that each stage of development builds upon the previous ones, leading to continuous growth and progress. This perspective emphasizes the importance of continuous learning and improvement in achieving developmental goals.

The concept that refers to the persistent difference in grades, test scores, and graduation rates that exist among students of different ethnicities, races, and sexes is the achievement gap. This term is used to describe the disparities in educational outcomes between different groups of students, highlighting the unequal access to resources, opportunities, and support that can contribute to these differences. The achievement gap is a complex issue influenced by various factors such as socioeconomic status, systemic inequalities, and educational policies.

The reason "younger average age for marriage" least describes the reasons for the new lifespan development category called emerging adulthood because it is not a characteristic or factor that contributes to the emergence of this stage. Emerging adulthood is primarily defined by changes in the workforce, changing cultural expectations, and taking longer to complete a college degree, whereas the age at which individuals get married is not directly related to this developmental stage.

Scott's understanding that cutting one piece of pizza into two slices is the same amount as cutting it into three slices demonstrates conservation. Conservation refers to the understanding that the quantity of an object or substance remains the same even when its appearance or arrangement changes. In this case, Scott recognizes that the total amount of pizza remains unchanged regardless of the number of slices it is divided into. This understanding reflects conservation of quantity, which is a key aspect of cognitive development in children.

During the formal operational stage, children develop the ability to think abstractly and engage in hypothetical reasoning. Moral reasoning is a developmental issue that children face during this stage. It involves the ability to understand and make judgments about right and wrong, as well as the consequences of their actions. This stage is characterized by the development of a personal code of ethics and an understanding of moral principles such as fairness and justice. Children in the formal operational stage begin to consider the intentions and motivations behind actions, and they may also start to question societal norms and values.

Children whose parents have an authoritarian parenting style are most likely to become anxious, withdrawn, and unhappy. This is because authoritarian parents tend to be strict, demanding, and controlling, which can lead to high levels of pressure and fear in children. As a result, children may develop anxiety, withdraw from social interactions, and feel unhappy due to the lack of autonomy and emotional support in their upbringing.

A teratogen is any environmental agent, whether biological, chemical, or physical, that causes damage. Teratogens are substances or factors that can disrupt the development of an embryo or fetus, leading to birth defects or developmental abnormalities. They can include things like certain drugs, chemicals, infections, or radiation. These agents can interfere with the normal development of the embryo or fetus, causing structural or functional abnormalities in the developing organism.

Grasping a toy, writing with a pencil, and using a spoon require precise and coordinated movements of the small muscles in our hands and fingers. These activities involve fine motor skills, which involve the dexterity and control of small muscle groups. Fine motor skills are necessary for tasks that require precision and accuracy, such as writing, drawing, and manipulating small objects.

Cognitive development refers to the growth and improvement of various mental processes, such as learning, attention, memory, language, thinking, reasoning, and creativity. This type of development involves the acquisition and refinement of cognitive skills and abilities, which are essential for problem-solving, decision-making, and overall intellectual functioning. It encompasses the development of knowledge, understanding, and the ability to process and interpret information. Therefore, the given answer of "cognitive" is correct as it accurately describes the specific type of development that includes these mental processes.

Balancing, running, and jumping are all examples of gross motor skills. Gross motor skills involve the movement and coordination of large muscle groups, such as those in the arms, legs, and core. These skills require the use of multiple body parts and the ability to control and coordinate movements. Balancing, running, and jumping all require the use of large muscle groups and coordination of movements, making them examples of gross motor skills. Fine motor skills, on the other hand, involve the coordination and control of smaller muscle groups, such as those in the hands and fingers.

Authoritative parents expect mature behavior from their children, but also use reasoning and set firm limits. They provide guidance and rules, but also allow for independence and individuality. This parenting style is characterized by open communication, mutual respect, and a balance between discipline and warmth. Authoritative parents encourage their children to express their opinions and make decisions, while still maintaining authority and structure in the household. This approach fosters a healthy and supportive environment for the child's development.

A case study is a research method used by developmental psychologists to gather extensive information from a single individual. By studying one person in depth, researchers can gain insights into the physical and psychological changes that occur over a lifespan. This method allows for a detailed examination of an individual's unique experiences and can provide valuable data for understanding developmental processes.

Emily plans to use surveys to complete her doctoral paper. Surveys involve asking individuals to self-report important information about how their thoughts, experiences, and beliefs differ over a 10-year period. This method allows Emily to collect data directly from participants and gain insights into their subjective experiences. Surveys are a common research tool in psychology as they provide a structured way to gather large amounts of data efficiently.

In the nature vs. nurture debate, the term "nature" refers to genes and biology. This means that the debate is focused on whether an individual's behavior, traits, and abilities are primarily influenced by their genetic makeup or by their environment and upbringing. The "nature" side argues that genetic factors play a significant role in shaping a person's characteristics, while the "nurture" side emphasizes the impact of environmental factors such as upbringing, culture, and socialization.

Nurture refers to the environmental and cultural factors that influence an individual's development and behavior. It encompasses the experiences, upbringing, education, and social interactions that shape a person's personality, beliefs, and values. The nature vs. nurture debate explores the relative contributions of genetics (nature) and environmental factors (nurture) in determining human traits and characteristics.

Teratogens are substances or agents that can cause birth defects or abnormalities in a developing fetus. Heroin, cocaine, methamphetamine, cigarettes, and alcohol are all known teratogens, meaning that exposure to these substances during pregnancy can have harmful effects on the developing baby. These substances can cross the placenta and interfere with the normal development of the fetus, potentially leading to a range of physical, cognitive, and behavioral problems. Therefore, the given answer, teratogens, accurately describes these substances and their potential impact on fetal development.

This scenario demonstrates assimilation, which is the process of incorporating new information or experiences into existing mental schemas. Ainsley has already learned the schema for trucks based on her family's truck, and she is now applying this schema to trucks she sees on television. This shows that she is assimilating new instances of the concept of a truck into her existing understanding of what a truck is.

The normative approach in lifespan development asks about what is considered normal development. It seeks to understand the typical patterns and milestones of development across different age groups. This approach examines the average or typical behaviors, abilities, and characteristics that individuals are expected to display at certain stages of life. It helps in identifying deviations from the norm and understanding the factors that influence development.

The concept of conservation refers to knowing that, even if you change the appearance of something, it is still equal in size as long as nothing has been removed or added. This means that the quantity or amount of something remains the same, regardless of its appearance. Conservation is an important cognitive milestone in child development and is often tested using tasks that involve pouring liquid from one container to another or rearranging objects in a line. It demonstrates an understanding of the concept of conservation, which is an essential aspect of logical thinking and understanding the permanence of objects.

Attachment refers to a long-standing connection or bond with others. It is a deep emotional bond that forms between individuals, typically between a caregiver and a child. This bond is characterized by feelings of trust, security, and comfort, and it plays a crucial role in shaping an individual's social and emotional development. Attachment is formed through consistent and responsive caregiving, which helps to create a sense of safety and support in relationships. This connection with others is essential for healthy relationships and overall well-being.

The formal operational stage is characterized by the ability to think abstractly and use logical reasoning to solve problems. During this stage, children can consider multiple solutions to a problem, evaluate their effectiveness, and test them out. They are able to think hypothetically and engage in deductive reasoning. This stage typically occurs during adolescence and continues into adulthood.