Psychology Exam: Memory, Thinking, Intelligence and Language

Long-term memory is a type of memory that stores a large amount of information for an extended period of time. This type of memory allows individuals to retain information and recall it later on, even after significant periods of time have passed. It is characterized by its relatively permanent nature, as it is capable of storing information for a long time. Unlike sensory memory, which only holds information briefly, and short-term memory, which has a limited capacity and duration, long-term memory is capable of storing a vast amount of information for an extended period.

Retrieval is the memory process that occurs when information that was retained in memory storage comes out. It involves the ability to recall or remember previously learned information or experiences. During retrieval, the brain searches for the stored information and brings it back into conscious awareness. This process is essential for accessing and using stored memories to make decisions, solve problems, and engage in various cognitive tasks.

The three processes of memory are encoding, storage, and retrieval. Encoding refers to the process of converting information into a format that can be stored in memory. Storage is the process of maintaining and organizing the encoded information over time. Retrieval is the process of accessing and recalling stored information when needed. Therefore, storage is the correct answer as it accurately represents one of the three processes involved in memory.

The reason why we more quickly recognize that a blue jay is a bird than a penguin is because a blue jay closely resembles our prototype or typical mental representation of a bird. Our prototype of a bird is usually based on common characteristics shared by most birds, such as having wings, feathers, and the ability to fly. A blue jay fits this prototype more closely than a penguin, which has different characteristics like being flightless and having a different physical appearance. Therefore, our recognition and categorization of a blue jay as a bird is faster and more automatic compared to a penguin.

Hindsight bias refers to our tendency to believe, after an event has occurred, that we accurately predicted the outcome, even if we didn't. This bias often leads us to overestimate our ability to predict events and can distort our memory of what we actually thought or believed before the event took place. It is a cognitive bias that affects our perception of our own abilities and can impact decision-making processes.

Encoding is the memory process that involves converting incoming information into a form that can be stored and retrieved later. When we take in information during a lecture, for example, we are encoding the words and diagrams presented to us, so that we can remember and recall them later. This process allows us to transform sensory input into meaningful representations that can be stored in our memory system.

The correct answer is "Prototype." Arnold struggled to see bullfighting as a sport because it did not match his mental image or prototype of what a sport should be like. A prototype is a typical or idealized example that represents a category or concept. In this case, Arnold had a specific idea or prototype of what a sport should look like, and bullfighting did not fit that prototype, leading to his difficulty in recognizing it as a sport.

Algorithms are strategies that guarantee a solution to a problem by following a set of predefined rules and instructions. They involve a step-by-step approach and can be applied to various domains, such as mathematics, computer science, and problem-solving. Unlike heuristics, which are more flexible and rely on general guidelines, algorithms provide a systematic and reliable way to solve problems. Cognitions refer to mental processes and Hindsight Bias is a cognitive bias where people perceive past events as more predictable than they actually were.

The research conducted by Professor Kyoto, which focuses on identifying circumstances where confirmation bias hinders effective problem solving, aligns with the specialty area of cognitive psychology. Cognitive psychology investigates mental processes such as perception, memory, thinking, and problem-solving. Professor Kyoto's research specifically examines how cognitive biases, like confirmation bias, can impact problem-solving abilities. Therefore, cognitive psychology is the best fit for her research.

Functional fixedness refers to the cognitive bias that limits a person's ability to see alternative uses or functions for an object beyond its typical or intended use. In this scenario, Pablo is experiencing functional fixedness because he is unable to recognize that a coin in his pocket can be used as a substitute for a screwdriver. He is fixed on the idea that only a screwdriver can be used for this task, overlooking the potential of using the coin as an alternative tool.

A schema is a preexisting mental framework or concept that helps people organize and interpret information. It acts as a cognitive structure that allows individuals to categorize and make sense of new experiences or information based on their existing knowledge and beliefs. Schemas can influence perception, memory, and decision-making processes by providing a framework for understanding and interpreting the world around us.

Retention is the ability to store and recall information or experiences over a period of time. It involves the process of encoding, storing, and retrieving information from memory. This term refers to the capacity to retain or remember things, ensuring that they are available for future use or recollection.

This answer is correct because the ability of pigeons to discriminate between pictures of cars and pictures of chairs demonstrates their capacity to develop concepts. Concepts refer to mental representations of categories or classes of objects or events. Pigeons are able to form a mental category for cars and another for chairs, allowing them to distinguish between the two. This ability showcases their cognitive capacity to develop and utilize concepts.

Semantic memory refers to a person's knowledge and understanding of the world, including facts, concepts, and general knowledge. It is the memory system that allows individuals to recall information about language, objects, people, and abstract concepts. This type of memory is distinct from implicit memory, which involves unconscious memories and skills, and consciousness, which refers to awareness and subjective experience. Sonomatic memory is not a recognized term or concept in psychology. Therefore, the correct answer is semantic memory.

A person living in Iowa is likely to have a pine tree prototype. Iowa has a temperate climate, which is suitable for the growth of pine trees. Pine trees are commonly found in the region and are well-adapted to the local environment. They are known for their needle-like leaves and cone-shaped structure, which helps them withstand harsh winters. Therefore, it is reasonable to assume that a person living in Iowa is more likely to have a pine tree prototype compared to other options like palm tree or dead tree.

Native German speakers who pronounce the English word "this" as "dis" are demonstrating their difficulty with an English phoneme. A phoneme is the smallest unit of sound in a language that can distinguish meaning. In English, the /θ/ sound in "this" is not present in German, so German speakers may substitute it with the closest sound they have, which is /d/. This substitution of sounds indicates a difficulty with the specific phoneme in English pronunciation.

Overcoming functional fixedness refers to the ability to think beyond the typical functions of an object and find alternative uses for it. In this scenario, Charles is faced with a problem (broken shoelace) and instead of being limited by the traditional function of the objects he has (shoelace and name tag), he is able to think creatively and repurpose the neck strap of his name tag as a substitute for the broken shoelace. This demonstrates his ability to overcome functional fixedness and think outside the box to find a solution to his problem.

According to the semantic/associate model proposed by Collins and Quillian, the concept "robin" is most likely to activate the memory concept "is an animal." This is because "robin" is a specific type of bird, which falls under the broader category of animals. In the semantic/associate model, concepts are organized in a hierarchical manner, with more specific concepts being connected to broader concepts. Therefore, when thinking about "robin," the concept of being an animal is likely to be activated.

The defense attorney is using representativeness heuristics by emphasizing her client's typical characteristics and activities to make him appear as a typical member of the local community. This heuristic is a mental shortcut where people make judgments or assumptions based on how closely something or someone matches a prototype or stereotype. In this case, the attorney is trying to influence the jury's perception of her client by highlighting his relatability and normalcy, even though these details may not be directly relevant to the trial.

The correct answer is syntax because syntax refers to the rules and structure of how words are organized to form meaningful sentences in a language. In English, the rule is to place adjectives before nouns, such as "green car." This demonstrates the syntax rule of adjective placement in the English language.

Prospective memory refers to the ability to remember and perform planned actions in the future. It involves remembering to carry out intentions or tasks at a specific time or in a specific situation. This type of memory is crucial for everyday functioning, as it helps individuals remember to do things like attending appointments, taking medication, or completing tasks on time. Unlike retrospective memory, which involves remembering past events, prospective memory focuses on remembering and executing future actions.

Implicit memory refers to the type of memory in which behavior is affected by prior experience without a conscious recollection of that experience. It is a form of long-term memory that influences our actions, thoughts, and feelings without us being aware of it. Implicit memory is responsible for the automatic and unconscious retrieval of information, such as motor skills, habits, and conditioned responses. Unlike explicit memory, which involves conscious recollection of facts and events, implicit memory operates on a more unconscious level, making it difficult to consciously recall or verbalize.

The relationship between prototype and category is that a prototype is an example or a representative of a specific category. Similarly, milk is an example or a representative of the category of beverages. Both prototype and milk serve as typical or common examples within their respective categories.

Janet categorizes the coffee mug, tall juice glass, and short whiskey glass together as the concept of "cup" because they all share similar characteristics and functions. A concept is a mental representation of a category or class of objects, and in this case, Janet recognizes that these objects are all types of containers typically used for drinking beverages.

According to the connectionist network view of memory, memories are formed through neural connections, which are the pathways between neurons in the brain. This view suggests that memories are stored as patterns of activation in these connections. On the other hand, the schema theory of memory suggests that memories are large knowledge structures or frameworks that organize and store information. These structures help us make sense of new information by relating it to our existing knowledge and experiences.

Heuristics are shortcut strategies or guidelines that suggest a solution to a problem but do not guarantee an answer. They are mental shortcuts that help individuals make quick decisions or judgments based on limited information or previous experiences. Unlike algorithms, heuristics do not provide a step-by-step procedure to solve a problem. Instead, they rely on intuition and educated guesses to find a solution. Therefore, heuristics can be seen as useful problem-solving tools, but they may also lead to errors or biases in decision-making.

A schema for an event often containing info about physical features people and typical occurrences is called a script. A script is a mental representation or framework that helps us organize and understand events or situations. It includes information about the sequence of actions, roles of individuals involved, and the typical occurrences or outcomes associated with the event. Scripts allow us to predict and anticipate what will happen in familiar situations, making it easier for us to navigate and interact with the world around us.

Kendra's classification method uses defining features because she has specific criteria that she believes are necessary for an animal to be classified as a fish. These criteria include swimming, laying eggs, and having gills. By using these defining features, Kendra is able to determine whether or not an animal fits into the category of fish based on the presence or absence of these traits.

Imagery is a powerful technique that helps make our memories distinctive. By creating vivid mental images, we are able to encode information in a way that is more easily retrievable later on. Imagery engages multiple senses and creates a strong association with the information being remembered, making it more memorable and distinct from other memories. This makes imagery an effective strategy for enhancing memory recall.

An algorithm is a step-by-step procedure or set of rules that guarantees a solution to a problem. In this case, systematically searching every shelf in every store aisle is a methodical and systematic approach to finding Tabasco sauce in a large grocery store. By following a predetermined set of steps, one can be confident that they will eventually locate the desired item. This demonstrates problem solving through the use of an algorithm.

Short-term memory refers to the temporary storage of information that we are actively processing and using. It has a more limited capacity compared to sensory memory, which is the initial stage of memory that briefly holds sensory information. This means that we can hold a smaller amount of information in our short-term memory at a given time. However, short-term memory has a longer duration compared to sensory memory, allowing us to hold and manipulate information for a short period of time before it is either forgotten or transferred to long-term memory.

Shane is processing the word "braggart" at a deep level because he is making a personal connection to his friend Bill's behavior after winning a tennis match. This suggests that Shane is not just memorizing the definition of the word, but also relating it to a specific personal experience, which indicates a deeper understanding and processing of the word.

Chomsky, a famous language theorist, would have most likely emphasized that children master the rule for forming the past tense of regular verbs before they learn common past tense constructions of irregular verbs. Chomsky's theory of language acquisition, known as Universal Grammar, suggests that children have an innate ability to acquire language and that they possess a language acquisition device that helps them learn grammatical rules. According to Chomsky, children learn language through a process of hypothesis testing and rule formation, and they apply these rules to both regular and irregular verbs.

Sensory memory is the first stage of memory processing, where information from our senses is briefly held before being transferred to short-term memory. In this scenario, when you tell your friends about the great time you had at the Six Flags park, the information about that experience is most likely processed in your sensory memory. This is because sensory memory allows us to briefly hold and process sensory information, such as sights, sounds, and smells, before it is either forgotten or transferred to short-term memory for further processing.

The word "chimps" contains five phonemes, which are the individual sounds that make up the word (/tʃ/ /ɪ/ /m/ /p/ /s/), and two morphemes, which are the smallest units of meaning in a word (chim-p and -s).

Adding "s" to the word "apple" indicates that there is more than one apple, which is a rule of semantics. Semantics refers to the meaning or interpretation of words and how they relate to each other in a language. In this case, the addition of "s" changes the meaning of the word from a singular apple to multiple apples.

Megan's self-reminder that the most expensive brands are the best is an example of a heuristic. A heuristic is a mental shortcut or rule of thumb that helps simplify decision-making. In this case, Megan is using the heuristic that price is an indicator of quality when it comes to cosmetics. While this may not always be true, it allows Megan to quickly make decisions without having to extensively research or evaluate each brand.

Skinner's theory of language acquisition, also known as behaviorist theory, suggests that children acquire language through imitation and reinforcement. According to this theory, children learn to speak with an accent similar to their peers because they imitate the speech patterns and accents of those around them. Through reinforcement from their environment, they learn to produce sounds and words in a way that is consistent with the accent of their social group. This explanation aligns with Skinner's belief that language development is a result of observable behaviors and external influences.

Means-end analysis is a problem-solving method that involves breaking down a problem into smaller subgoals and finding ways to reduce the difference between the current state and the desired goal state. In this scenario, the academic advisor helps the student define their goals, identify their strengths and interests, and ultimately choose a major that aligns with their aspirations. This process aligns with the principles of means-end analysis as the student is breaking down the problem of choosing a major into smaller steps and finding ways to bridge the gap between their current state (having no idea what to do) and the desired goal state (feeling confident in their choice of Psychology major).

The given scenario involves Beatrix trying to decide how to communicate a difficult message to her boyfriend. Her friend Dave suggests using the analogy of ripping off a bandaged wound to convey the idea that it's best to address the issue directly and quickly. This type of problem solving, using an analogy to draw a parallel and apply it to the current situation, is known as analogical reasoning.

Elaboration refers to the extensiveness of processing information at a given level. It involves expanding upon and adding details to the information being processed. This can include making connections, providing examples, or relating the information to prior knowledge. Elaboration helps to enhance understanding and retention of the information by deepening the level of processing. Therefore, it is the most appropriate term to describe the extensiveness of processing information at a given level.

Means-end analysis refers to the cognitive process of identifying the current state, the desired goal state, and the steps needed to bridge the gap between the two. In this case, the explanation suggests that the easier it is for people to remember instances of betrayal by a friend, the more they expect it to happen again. This indicates that individuals are using means-end analysis to assess the likelihood of future events based on past experiences. The process involves comparing the current state (remembering instances of betrayal) with the desired goal state (avoiding future betrayal) and making predictions based on this analysis.

Exemplar theory suggests that people categorize objects based on their familiarity with specific examples or exemplars of the category. In this case, if someone has seen rat terriers and miniature Pinschers, which are somewhat similar to Chihuahuas, they can use their knowledge of these breeds to identify a Chihuahua as a "dog" based on similarities in appearance and behavior. This theory emphasizes the importance of individual experiences and specific examples in forming categories and making accurate identifications.

Aramis would be in the "Definition" step of the IDEAL problem-solving process. In this step, he is clarifying the problem and determining what exactly needs to be solved. He knows that he needs to calculate the standard deviation for the third problem, but he is unsure about which numbers to use for the calculations. By seeking clarification and understanding the problem fully, Aramis is in the definition stage of problem-solving.