The American Civil War: A Comprehensive Lesson 

Lesson Overview

• Causes of the Civil War: Sectional Differences and Slavery
• Early Strategies and Battles: 1861–1862
• The Emancipation Proclamation and its Impact (1863)
• Turning Points of 1863: Gettysburg and Vicksburg
• "Total War" and the Final Phase (1864–1865)
• Reconstruction and Its Challenges (1865–1877)

The American Civil War (1861–1865) was a defining conflict in United States history – a brutal war that claimed about 620,000 lives, nearly as many American deaths as all other U.S. wars combined. 

It was fought between the Northern states (the Union) and the Southern states that seceded to form the Confederacy. This lesson will guide you through the causes of the war, key events and strategies, and the aftermath during Reconstruction.

Causes of the Civil War: Sectional Differences and Slavery

In the decades before the Civil War, the United States became sharply divided along regional lines. The North (Union) and South (Confederacy) developed different social and economic systems, leading to political conflicts. The most fundamental difference – and the ultimate cause of the war – was slavery. 

Southern states' economies and way of life were built on enslaved labor, while Northern states had largely abolished slavery and developed industrial economies. Many Americans understood at the time that the Confederacy existed to protect slavery as an institution, despite later myths claiming otherwise. Disagreements over the expansion of slavery into new territories further inflamed tensions.

To better understand the North–South divide, consider the following comparison:

Key pre-war events: A series of events in the 1850s heightened the sectional crisis:

• Dred Scott Decision (1857): The Supreme Court ruled that African Americans had no rights of citizenship and that Congress could not prohibit slavery in the territories. This outraged the North and emboldened the South.
• John Brown's Raid (1859): Abolitionist John Brown led an armed raid on the federal arsenal at Harpers Ferry, Virginia, hoping to seize weapons and spark a slave uprising. Brown's raid failed, but it terrified slaveholders and made further compromise between North and South nearly impossible. Brown was executed for treason, and many in the North viewed him as a martyr to the anti-slavery cause.
• Election of 1860: Abraham Lincoln won the presidency on an anti-slavery-expansion platform. Southern secessionists saw Lincoln's victory as a grave threat. The Charleston Mercury (a Southern newspaper) even celebrated Lincoln's win as if it were their own call to arms, proclaiming "The tea has been thrown overboard – the revolution of 1860 has been initiated." In other words, South Carolina and its neighbors took Lincoln's election as the signal to break away from the Union.

Secession and the Outbreak of War: 

In December 1860, South Carolina became the first state to secede from the Union. Six other Deep South states followed, and together they formed the Confederate States of America in early 1861, with Jefferson Davis as president. Notably, all of these states' secession declarations explicitly cited the defense of slavery as a primary reason for leaving the Union. 

The Civil War's first shots were fired in April 1861, when Confederate forces attacked Fort Sumter in Charleston Harbor, prompting Lincoln to call for troops to suppress the rebellion. The Upper South states (like Virginia, North Carolina, Tennessee) then seceded in response to Lincoln's call, bringing the Confederacy to 11 states.

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Early Strategies and Battles: 1861–1862

At the war's outset, each side had a different strategy. The Union's plan, nicknamed the "Anaconda Plan" by newspapers, aimed to squeeze the South's resources. This strategy was proposed by Union General Winfield Scott. 

Three key objectives emerged for the Union war effort: 

• Blockade Southern ports to cut off trade, 
• Seize control of the Mississippi River to split the Confederacy, and 
• Capture key Confederate strongholds (like Richmond) to break Southern resistance. 

In contrast, the Confederacy primarily adopted a defensive strategy – they did not need to conquer the North, only to resist long enough to make the Union quit. Southern leaders also engaged in "Cotton diplomacy", withholding cotton exports in hopes of forcing Britain or France to recognize Confederate independence and intervene. (This plan failed – Europe found other cotton sources and was wary of aiding a slave-holding rebel nation.)

Early battles set the tone for a long war. In 1861, the First Battle of Bull Run (Manassas) in Virginia saw enthusiastic but untrained armies clash; the Confederates won that battle, dispelling any illusion of a quick war. In 1862, Union forces won important fights in the West (such as Fort Donelson and Shiloh), gaining control of areas in Tennessee. 

However, in the East, Confederate General Robert E. Lee won stunning victories in the Seven Days Battles and at Second Bull Run. The year 1862 climaxed with the Battle of Antietam (Sharpsburg) in Maryland – the bloodiest single day in American history. Though tactically a draw, Antietam halted Lee's first invasion of the North and gave President Lincoln the opportunity to issue the Emancipation Proclamation.

The Emancipation Proclamation and its Impact (1863)

Lincoln's Emancipation Proclamation took effect on January 1, 1863, changing the character of the war. This executive order declared all enslaved people in the Confederate states "forever free." Importantly, it applied only to areas in rebellion, not to the Border States or regions already under Union control.

In practical terms, it did not immediately free all slaves (since the Union had no authority in Confederate-held areas at that moment). However, the Proclamation had profound effects: it gave the North a moral cause – now the war was not only about preserving the Union but also about ending slavery. This shift discouraged Britain or France from aiding the Confederacy (European public opinion was largely anti-slavery). 

It also allowed African Americans to join the Union Army. Nearly 180,000 Black soldiers and sailors would serve in Union forces by the end of the war, bolstering Northern manpower and undermining the Southern labor force. In short, the Emancipation Proclamation infused the war with a higher purpose and put the Confederacy on the defensive morally and diplomatically.

Turning Points of 1863: Gettysburg and Vicksburg

Gettysburg (July 1–3, 1863)

The Battle of Gettysburg marked a crucial turning point in the Civil War. It was a large-scale battle fought on Northern soil and became one of the most significant confrontations between the Union and Confederate forces. This battle not only had a huge impact on the course of the war but also set the stage for the Union's shift toward victory.

• General Robert E. Lee launched his second invasion of the North, marching into Pennsylvania.
• The Battle of Gettysburg was the bloodiest battle of the war, with over 50,000 soldiers killed, wounded, or missing.
• Union General George Meade and his forces defeated Lee's army, forcing them to retreat back to Virginia.
• It was the only major battle fought in the North, and Lee's attempt to threaten Northern cities failed.
• Gettysburg halted the Confederate advance and ended any chance of European intervention on behalf of the South.
• Turning point: From here on, Lee's army would primarily fight defensively.
• Lincoln's Gettysburg Address emphasized the principles of liberty, equality, and preserving the Union.

Vicksburg (May–July 1863)

While Gettysburg was a pivotal moment in the East, the Union's victory at Vicksburg was just as important in the West. It gave the Union control over the Mississippi River, cutting the Confederacy in two and dealing a major blow to the Southern war effort. This victory was key in the Union's strategy to defeat the South.

• Union General Ulysses S. Grant launched the Vicksburg Campaign, targeting the last major Confederate stronghold on the Mississippi River.
• Grant employed a brilliant strategy, moving south of Vicksburg (around 30 miles downriver) to cross the river and attack from an unexpected angle.
• Union forces won a series of battles (Port Gibson, Raymond, Jackson) and trapped Confederate forces in Vicksburg.
• Siege of Vicksburg: Grant bombarded the city for 47 days, cutting off supplies. Civilians suffered greatly, forced to live in caves and eat mules and rats.
• Vicksburg surrendered on July 4, 1863, the day after Gettysburg ended, effectively splitting the Confederacy in two.
• The Union now controlled the entire Mississippi River, which crippled Confederate supply lines.
• Outcome: Union victories at Gettysburg and Vicksburg were key turning points, putting the Confederacy on the defensive for the remainder of the war.

"Total War" and the Final Phase (1864–1865)

By 1864, the Union adopted a strategy of "Total War" to bring the Civil War to a swift and decisive end. This approach focused not only on defeating Confederate armies but also on destroying the South's resources and morale to break its will to continue fighting.

The Strategy of "Total War"

• Union Generals Ulysses S. Grant and William T. Sherman believed that defeating the South required more than just military victory.
  • Goal: Break the Confederate will to fight by targeting economic resources (such as factories, railroads, and farms) and civilian property that supported the Confederate war effort.
• This meant Union forces would engage in destructive actions designed to make everyday life unbearable for Southerners, forcing them to demand an end to the war.

Sherman's March to the Sea (1864)

• After capturing Atlanta in September 1864, General William T. Sherman led his March to the Sea from Atlanta to Savannah, Georgia (Nov–Dec 1864).
  • Sherman's troops burned crops, destroyed railroads, and tore up factories, leaving a wide path of destruction. They even bent rail tracks into "Sherman's neckties".
  • Sherman's aim was to inflict economic and psychological damage on the South and to force Southerners to feel the pain of the war, hoping it would lead them to pressure Confederate leaders to surrender.
  • Sherman famously said, "War is cruelty. The crueler it is, the sooner it will be over."

The Siege of Petersburg and Grant's Relentless Strategy

• Meanwhile, in Virginia, General Grant pressed relentlessly against General Robert E. Lee's Confederate forces in a series of grueling battles (Wilderness, Spotsylvania, and Cold Harbor).
  • Grant then besieged Petersburg (Lee's critical supply hub) for 9 months, cutting off essential supplies to the Confederate forces.
  • Despite suffering horrific casualties, Grant continued to push forward, understanding that the Union's greater resources (men, supplies, and equipment) would eventually exhaust the Confederacy.

The Fall of the Confederacy

• By early 1865, the Confederacy was exhausted:
  • Low on supplies, short on food and ammunition, and with the home front collapsing under the pressure of the Union's strategy.
• April 3, 1865: Union forces captured Richmond, the Confederate capital.
• April 9, 1865: General Lee surrendered to General Grant at Appomattox Court House, marking the effective end of the Civil War.
  • Other Confederate forces surrendered in the following weeks, and the Union had prevailed.

Outcome

• The United States remained intact, and slavery was in the process of being abolished forever.
• The Total War strategy successfully wore down the Confederate forces and led to the war's ultimate conclusion.

Reconstruction and Its Challenges (1865–1877)

The end of the Civil War brought with it the difficult task of rebuilding the South and integrating newly freed African Americans into public life. The period known as Reconstruction was shaped by various plans and policies aimed at reintegrating the Southern states into the Union while also addressing the rights of African Americans. 

Here's an overview of the key elements and challenges of Reconstruction:

Lincoln's Approach: The "Ten Percent Plan"

• Lincoln's vision for Reconstruction aimed for a swift, lenient reconciliation.
• His "Ten Percent Plan" stated that:
  • If 10% of a seceded state's voters swore loyalty to the Union and accepted the abolition of slavery, that state could form a new government and rejoin the Union.
• Lincoln's philosophy: "With malice toward none, with charity for all", seeking to heal the wounds of the war and bring the nation back together.

After Lincoln: Andrew Johnson's Presidency

• Lincoln's assassination in April 1865 led to Vice President Andrew Johnson taking office.
• Johnson's approach to Reconstruction clashed with Congress. While Johnson was more lenient, Radical Republicans in Congress wanted a tougher stance on the South, demanding that the South:
  • Guarantee full civil rights for freed African Americans.
  • Be punished for their role in the rebellion.

Key Amendments: Expanding Civil Rights

• 13th Amendment (1865): Abolished slavery in all states, legally fulfilling the promise of emancipation.
• 14th Amendment (1868): Granted citizenship and equal civil rights to anyone born in the U.S. (primarily aimed at protecting African Americans).
• 15th Amendment (1870): Stated that voting rights could not be denied based on race, aiming to enfranchise Black men.
• These Reconstruction Amendments expanded civil rights on paper, but enforcement was challenging.

Federal Troops and Freedmen's Bureau: Protecting Rights

• During Reconstruction, the federal government stationed troops in the South to:
  • Maintain order and protect the rights of freed African Americans.
  • Help ensure that African Americans could exercise their new rights in the face of resistance.
• The Freedmen's Bureau played a critical role in providing:
  • Education (many schools were established, raising Black literacy).
  • Political participation, with Black men voting and even holding public office in the late 1860s.

Backlash: Emergence of White Supremacist Groups

• Ex-Confederates strongly resisted Reconstruction, leading to the rise of terrorist organizations like:
  • Ku Klux Klan (KKK) and the White League.
• These groups aimed to restore white supremacy and:
  • Oppose the rights of African Americans, especially their right to vote.
  • Use violence and intimidation (lynchings, arson, and murder) to suppress Black political and civil rights.

Federal Response: Enforcement Acts and Political Cartoons

• In response to the violence, the U.S. Army and federal authorities passed the Enforcement Acts (1870–1871) to combat the KKK's actions.
  • These acts had some short-term success in curbing Klan activity.
• Political cartoons from this time depicted the chaotic conditions of the South, often highlighting the violent influence of groups like the KKK and criticizing their attempts to undermine Reconstruction.

The End of Reconstruction: 1877

• By the mid-1870s, Northern resolve to enforce civil rights began to waver.
• In 1877, federal troops were withdrawn from the South as part of the Compromise of 1877, effectively ending Reconstruction.
  • White Southern Democrats (called "Redeemers") regained control, rolling back the rights of African Americans.
  • This ushered in the Jim Crow era of racial segregation.

The Role of Federal Troops After the War

• The federal government sent troops into the South after the war primarily to:
  • Prevent violence and voter intimidation against African Americans.
  • Act as peacekeepers in areas where extremist groups tried to stop African Americans from voting or exercising their rights.
• While essential, this military presence was temporary and was withdrawn by 1877, leading to the end of Reconstruction.

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