Lecture 1 And 2 Fill-in-the-blanks
Questions and Answers
- 1.
After blood is centrifuged to separate out its components, the top layer of the sample consists of ________, the middle layer of the sample consists of ________, and the bottom layer of the consists of ________.
Explanation
After blood is centrifuged, the different components of the blood separate based on their density. The top layer of the sample is the plasma, which is the liquid component of the blood and contains various proteins, electrolytes, and nutrients. The middle layer is the buffy coat, which consists of white blood cells and platelets. The bottom layer is made up of erythrocytes, or red blood cells, which are responsible for carrying oxygen throughout the body.Rate this question:
- 2.
The ________ shaped curve appearing in oxygen-hemoglobin dissociation graphs (pictured below) occurs as a result of ________ binding. The increasing slope of this graph indicates increased ________.
Explanation
The correct answer is "sigmoidal, S, cooperative, binding affinity". In oxygen-hemoglobin dissociation graphs, the sigmoidal or S-shaped curve is observed due to cooperative binding. Cooperative binding refers to the binding of oxygen molecules to hemoglobin, where the binding of one oxygen molecule facilitates the binding of subsequent molecules. This results in a steepening of the curve, indicating increased binding affinity between hemoglobin and oxygen.Rate this question:
- 3.
Decreased red blood cell production, increased red blood cell destruction, and blood loss can all result in ________.
Explanation
Anemia can occur due to various reasons, including decreased red blood cell production, increased red blood cell destruction, and blood loss. When the production of red blood cells decreases, the body may not have enough healthy red blood cells to carry oxygen to the tissues, leading to anemia. Similarly, if there is an increased destruction of red blood cells or excessive blood loss, it can also result in anemia as the body loses its ability to maintain an adequate number of red blood cells.Rate this question:
- 4.
Red blood cells exhibit a ________ shape that leads to a(n) ________ in surface area, and allows for greater oxygen absorption.
Explanation
Red blood cells have a bi-concave or biconcave shape, meaning they are concave on both sides. This shape increases their surface area, allowing for greater oxygen absorption.Rate this question:
- 5.
________ is the primary oxygen-carrying molecule in muscle, which has a greater oxygen-binding affinity than ________, the primary oxygen-carrying molecule in blood.
Explanation
Myoglobin is the primary oxygen-carrying molecule in muscle, while hemoglobin is the primary oxygen-carrying molecule in blood. Myoglobin has a greater oxygen-binding affinity than hemoglobin, meaning it has a stronger attraction to oxygen molecules. This allows myoglobin to efficiently store and release oxygen in muscle tissues, ensuring an adequate oxygen supply for muscle function. Hemoglobin, on the other hand, is responsible for transporting oxygen from the lungs to the rest of the body.Rate this question:
- 6.
Each hemoglobin subunit consists of a(n) ________ ring with a(n) ________ atom in its center. Each subunit is capable of binding ________ oxygen molecule(s), with a maximum binding of ________ oxygen molecule(s) per hemoglobin molecule.
Explanation
Hemoglobin is composed of four subunits, each containing a porphyrin ring with an iron atom in its center. Each subunit can bind one oxygen molecule, allowing a maximum binding of four oxygen molecules per hemoglobin molecule.Rate this question:
- 7.
Oxygen dissociates from ________, diffuses across the muscle cell membrane, and binds ________. Inside the muscle cell, oxygen is released from ________ and moves into the mitochondria as a result of the ________ gradient.
Explanation
Oxygen dissociates from hemoglobin, which is a protein found in red blood cells, and diffuses across the muscle cell membrane. Inside the muscle cell, oxygen binds to myoglobin, another protein that is present in muscle cells. Oxygen is then released from myoglobin and moves into the mitochondria, the powerhouse of the cell, as a result of the partial pressure gradient.Rate this question:
- 8.
Carbon monoxide binds to the ________ group in hemoglobin more tightly than ________, which is what ultimately causes carbon monoxide poisoning.
Explanation
Carbon monoxide binds to the heme group in hemoglobin more tightly than oxygen, which is what ultimately causes carbon monoxide poisoning.Rate this question:
- 9.
Blood cell formation, also called ________, occurs in the ________ bone marrow.
Explanation
Blood cell formation, also known as hematopoiesis or haematopoiesis, takes place in the red bone marrow. This process involves the production of various types of blood cells, including red blood cells, white blood cells, and platelets. The red bone marrow contains stem cells that differentiate into these different types of blood cells, ensuring a constant supply of healthy blood cells in the body.Rate this question:
- 10.
Line ________ (hint: letter) represents adult hemoglobin in the graph below, while line ________ (hint: letter) represents fetal hemoglobin. ________ hemoglobin has the higher oxygen-binding affinity.
Explanation
In the given graph, line B represents adult hemoglobin and line A represents fetal hemoglobin. The question states that line [Blank] (B) represents adult hemoglobin, while line [Blank] (A) represents fetal hemoglobin. Therefore, fetal hemoglobin has the higher oxygen-binding affinity.Rate this question:
- 11.
Environmental factors that could have caused the ________-shift in the oxygen dissociation curve below include increased ________, increased ________, or reduced ________.
Explanation
The correct answer is "right, temperature, altitude, altitude, temperature, pH". Environmental factors such as temperature, altitude, and pH can cause a shift in the oxygen dissociation curve. An increase in temperature can shift the curve to the right, indicating a decrease in the affinity of hemoglobin for oxygen. Similarly, an increase in altitude can also shift the curve to the right due to lower oxygen availability. Changes in pH can affect the affinity of hemoglobin for oxygen, with a decrease in pH (acidic conditions) causing a right shift.Rate this question:
- 12.
All erythrocytes originate from ________ stem cells, which then transform into committed cells, also called ________. These cells produce high levels of ________ in Phase 1 (the early erythroblast phase) of the developmental pathway.
Explanation
Erythrocytes, also known as red blood cells, are derived from hemocytoblast stem cells. These stem cells differentiate into committed cells called proerythroblasts. During Phase 1 of the developmental pathway, proerythroblasts produce high levels of ribosomes, which are responsible for protein synthesis.Rate this question:
- 13.
It is adaptive for hemoglobin to release oxygen at ________ levels when exercising, since tissues have a(n) ________ demand for oxygen. This causes a ________ shift on an oxygen-dissociation curve.
Explanation
When exercising, tissues have a higher demand for oxygen. In order to meet this increased demand, it is adaptive for hemoglobin to release oxygen at increased levels. This causes a higher shift on an oxygen-dissociation curve, indicating that more oxygen is being released by hemoglobin to the tissues. The term "right" refers to the direction of the shift on the curve, indicating an increase in oxygen release.Rate this question:
- 14.
Reduced ________ levels trigger red blood cell production by stimulating the kidneys to release ________. This is an example of a ________ feedback loop.
Explanation
Reduced oxygen levels trigger red blood cell production by stimulating the kidneys to release erythropoietin (EPO). This is an example of a negative feedback loop, where the response (increased red blood cell production) works to counteract the initial stimulus (reduced oxygen levels).Rate this question:
- 15.
The image below depicts a ________ cell ejecting its nucleus to become a(n) ________. The color of the cell has become yellowish-orange due to the accumulation of ________ protein.
Explanation
A normoblast is a type of cell that is ejecting its nucleus to become a reticulocyte. The color of the cell has become yellowish-orange due to the accumulation of hemoglobin protein.Rate this question:
- 16.
The ________ side of the heart flows oxygen-rich, CO2-poor blood to the ________ circuit, while the ________ side of the heart flows oxygen-poor, CO2-rich blood to the ________ circuit.
Explanation
The left side of the heart flows oxygen-rich, CO2-poor blood to the systemic circuit, while the right side of the heart flows oxygen-poor, CO2-rich blood to the pulmonary circuit.Rate this question:
- 17.
The two layers of the pericardium are the ________ and serous layers. The myocardium, is otherwise known as the cardiac muscle and is located on the figure as letter ________. This is the very slippery layer closest to the heart chamber that is known for reducing friction in the heart. It is called the ________ and is located on the figure as letter ________.
Explanation
The two layers of the pericardium are the fibrous and serous layers. The myocardium, which is the cardiac muscle, is located on the figure as letter B. The layer closest to the heart chamber that reduces friction in the heart is called the endocardium, which is located on the figure as letter D.Rate this question:
- 18.
There are ________ (numeric value) heart chambers that are comprised of ________ (numeric value) superior atria and ________ (numeric value) inferior ________
Explanation
The human heart is composed of four chambers, two superior atria, and two inferior ventricles. The atria receive blood returning to the heart, while the ventricles pump blood out of the heart to the rest of the body.Rate this question:
- 19.
This is the major vessel that carries blood from the head, upper torso and arms. It is located as, ________ on the figure and is called the ________. This is the major vessel that carries blood to the heart from the lower torso and legs. It is located on the figure as ________ and is called the ________.
Explanation
The major vessel that carries blood from the head, upper torso, and arms is called the superior vena cava. It is located as B on the figure. On the other hand, the major vessel that carries blood to the heart from the lower torso and legs is called the inferior vena cava. It is located on the figure as A.Rate this question:
- 20.
An increase in ventricular pressure causes the ________ valve to open. During ventricular relaxation, this valve is as pictured in figure ________ below, to control back flow of blood into the ventricle.
Explanation
An increase in ventricular pressure causes the semilunar valve to open. During ventricular relaxation, this valve is as pictured in figure B below, to control backflow of blood into the ventricle.Rate this question:
- 21.
For the figures of the compromised valves shown below, the valve labeled ________ will result in a murmur because it is leaky, causing ________. The valve labeled ________ will also result in a murmur because it is ________, causing turbulent flow.
Explanation
The valve labeled B will result in a murmur because it is leaky, causing turbulent backflow. The valve labeled D will also result in a murmur because it is narrowed, causing turbulent flow.Rate this question:
- 22.
A) On the graph, ________ is the point at which potassium permeability decreases and is accompanied by slow ________ entry. B) On the graph, ________ is the point at which fast calcium channels open C) On the graph, ________ is the point at which there is slow depolarization. This is known as ________.
Explanation
On the graph, point C represents the point at which there is slow depolarization. This slow depolarization is known as the pacemaker potential. Point C is associated with the entry of sodium ions (Na+). On the other hand, point A represents the point at which potassium permeability decreases, leading to slow entry of sodium ions (Na+). Point B represents the point at which fast calcium channels open. Therefore, the correct answer is C for point C, Sodium (Na+) for the blank, A for point A, B for point B, and Pacemaker Potential for the blank.Rate this question:
- 23.
Means of stimulation: Cardiac muscle cells are ________, while skeletal muscle cells require a(n) ________ input to reach depolarization.
Explanation
Cardiac muscle cells are self-excitable, meaning they can generate electrical impulses on their own without any external stimulation. On the other hand, skeletal muscle cells require a nervous system input to reach depolarization, which means they need a signal from the nervous system to initiate contraction.Rate this question:
- 24.
On the figure below, A is known as the ________. In cardiac muscle, this is longer than in skeletal muscle in order to prevent summation of nervous signals called ________.
Explanation
In cardiac muscle, the A is known as the refractory period. This is longer than in skeletal muscle in order to prevent summation of nervous signals called tetanus, tetanic contraction, or tetanic contractions. The refractory period is a period of time after a muscle has contracted where it cannot be stimulated again. This prevents the muscle from contracting too frequently and allows for proper relaxation and filling of the chambers of the heart. Tetanus, on the other hand, refers to a sustained contraction of a muscle due to rapid and continuous stimulation.Rate this question:
- 25.
The heart is able to contract in a coordinated fashion due to the presence of special intracellular connections called ________. If these close, ischemia leading to a(n) ________ will occur.
Explanation
Gap junctions are special intracellular connections that allow for the coordinated contraction of the heart. These connections allow electrical signals to pass between cardiac muscle cells, ensuring that the heart beats in a synchronized manner. If these gap junctions close, it can disrupt the electrical conduction in the heart, leading to ischemia, which is a lack of blood flow to the heart muscle. Prolonged ischemia can result in myocardial infarction, commonly known as a heart attack, where a portion of the heart muscle dies due to lack of oxygen and nutrients.Rate this question:
- 26.
Letter ________ is the point at which the excitation starts. This is called the ________, otherwise known as the pacemaker.This is the second point of excitation where there is a 0.1 second pause to allow ventricular filling—this is at the ________ and this corresponds to letter ________.
Explanation
The correct answer is B. The Sinoatrial Node (SA Node) is the point at which the excitation starts and is also known as the pacemaker. This is the second point of excitation where there is a 0.1 second pause to allow ventricular filling, and this corresponds to the Atrioventricular Node (AV Node).Rate this question:
- 27.
Contraction of the heart starts at point ________, called the ________ of the heart, and travels to point ________, called the base of the heart.
Explanation
The contraction of the heart starts at the apex, which is the lowest point of the heart, and travels to the base, which is the top of the heart.Rate this question:
- 28.
The red X in the figure below represents the disruption of an electrical signal which results in an issue called a _______________
Explanation
The red X in the figure represents the disruption of an electrical signal in the heart, which can lead to a condition called heart block. Heart block refers to a delay or complete blockage of the electrical impulses that regulate the heartbeat, causing an abnormal heart rhythm. The term "defective SA node" is not directly mentioned in the question or figure, so it is not a suitable explanation for the red X.Rate this question:
- 29.
Fill in the blanks relating the phase of a cardiac action potential to the points on an EKG.A) The ________ is the point at which the atria depolarize. B) The ________ represents ventricular repolarization. C) The QRS complex is that point at which there is ________.
Explanation
The P wave is the point at which the atria depolarize. The T wave represents ventricular repolarization. The QRS complex is that point at which there is ventricular depolarization.Rate this question:
- 30.
The circle labeled ________ represents the point where there is a pause in signal at the AV node. The circle labeled ________ is the point at which the signal spreads through the ventricle walls, causing them to contract.
Explanation
The circle labeled A represents the point where there is a pause in signal at the AV node. This is known as the atrioventricular (AV) delay, which allows time for the atria to fully contract and empty their blood into the ventricles before the ventricles contract. The circle labeled B represents the point at which the signal spreads through the ventricle walls, causing them to contract. This is known as ventricular depolarization, which leads to the contraction of the ventricles and the pumping of blood out of the heart.Rate this question:
- 31.
The sequence of electrical and mechanical events associated with each heartbeat is referred to as the ________. This mechanism is characterized by ventricular contraction, also known as ________, and ventricular relaxation, also known as ________.
Explanation
The sequence of electrical and mechanical events associated with each heartbeat is referred to as the cardiac cycle. This mechanism is characterized by ventricular contraction, also known as systole, and ventricular relaxation, also known as diastole. During systole, the ventricles contract and pump blood out of the heart, while during diastole, the ventricles relax and fill with blood. The cardiac cycle is essential for maintaining the circulation of blood throughout the body.Rate this question:
- 32.
The ________, a brief spike in pressure seen on an aortic pressure graph, is caused by blood flowing back from the aortic arch striking the closed aortic semilunar valve.
Explanation
The dicrotic notch is a brief spike in pressure seen on an aortic pressure graph. It is caused by blood flowing back from the aortic arch striking the closed aortic semilunar valve.Rate this question:
- 33.
During the initial portion of systole (phase 2a), ventricular pressure ________, while volume is ________.
Explanation
During the initial portion of systole (phase 2a), ventricular pressure increases as the heart contracts and pushes blood out of the ventricles. At the same time, the volume of blood in the ventricles remains constant, as the valves leading to the arteries are still closed. This phase is known as isovolumetric contraction, where the volume of blood in the ventricles does not change while the pressure increases.Rate this question:
- 34.
The "lub" heart sound corresponds to the closing of the ________ valves, while "dub" corresponds to the closing of the ________ valves.
Explanation
The "lub" heart sound corresponds to the closing of the AV (atrioventricular) valves, while "dub" corresponds to the closing of the semilunar valves.Rate this question:
- 35.
When all valves in the heart are closed the heart is in ________ ventricular contraction or relaxation. The constant volume of blood in the ventricles in this stage makes it analogous to ________ contraction, where muscle fibers develop tension but do not shorten.
Explanation
When all valves in the heart are closed, the heart is in isovolumetric ventricular contraction or relaxation. In this stage, the volume of blood in the ventricles remains constant, meaning that no blood is being ejected or filled. This is similar to isometric skeletal muscle contraction, where the muscle fibers develop tension but do not shorten. In both cases, there is no change in length or volume, but tension is being generated.Rate this question:
- 36.
According to ________'s law, an increase in venous return results in a(n) ________ in end diastolic volume, corresponding to an increase in ________
Explanation
According to Starling's law, an increase in venous return results in an increase in end diastolic volume, corresponding to an increase in stroke volume. This means that when the amount of blood returning to the heart increases, the heart stretches more during diastole, leading to a stronger contraction during systole and a greater volume of blood being pumped out of the heart with each beat. This is known as the stroke volume and is often represented by the abbreviation SV.Rate this question:
- 37.
The release of ________ initiates a cascade of events in the heart, leading to increased calcium entry into cardiac myocytes, activation of thin filaments, and increased cross bridge cycling. Collectively, these events serve to ________ the velocity and force of ventricular contraction.
Explanation
The release of cAMP, also known as cyclic AMP or cyclicAMP, triggers a series of events in the heart. It causes an influx of calcium into cardiac myocytes, which leads to the activation of thin filaments and an increase in cross bridge cycling. These events collectively work to enhance the velocity and force of ventricular contraction.Rate this question:
- 38.
________ can be caused by coronary atherosclerosis, increased blood pressure in the aorta, myocardial infarctions, or dilated cardiomyopathy (DCM).
Explanation
Congestive Heart Failure (CHF) can be caused by various factors such as coronary atherosclerosis, increased blood pressure in the aorta, myocardial infarctions, or dilated cardiomyopathy (DCM). These conditions can lead to the heart's inability to pump blood effectively, resulting in fluid accumulation and congestion in the body, particularly the lungs. This can cause symptoms such as shortness of breath, fatigue, and fluid retention. Therefore, CHF is the correct answer as it encompasses the various causes and symptoms mentioned in the question.Rate this question:
- 39.
________ is a condition marked by potassium levels in the blood that are higher than normal.
Explanation
Hyperkalemia is a condition marked by higher than normal levels of potassium in the blood. This can occur due to various factors such as kidney problems, certain medications, or hormonal imbalances. Hyperkalemia can lead to symptoms like muscle weakness, irregular heart rhythms, and numbness or tingling sensations. Treatment for hyperkalemia typically involves addressing the underlying cause and may include dietary changes, medication adjustments, or medical interventions to lower potassium levels in the blood.Rate this question:
- 40.
In fetal circulation, the ________ is a shunt that allows blood to pass from the right atrium to the left atrium.
Explanation
The foramen ovale is a shunt that allows blood to pass from the right atrium to the left atrium in fetal circulation. This opening is present in the fetal heart to bypass the non-functioning lungs, as the oxygen supply is provided by the mother through the placenta. It allows oxygenated blood to bypass the right ventricle and flow directly into the left atrium, from where it can be pumped out to the rest of the body. After birth, the foramen ovale usually closes as the lungs become functional and the need for the shunt diminishes.Rate this question:
- 41.
The ________ bypasses the underdeveloped fetal pulmonary circuit by shunting blood from the pulmonary artery to the aorta.
Explanation
The ductus arteriosus is a blood vessel that connects the pulmonary artery to the aorta in a developing fetus. It allows blood to bypass the underdeveloped fetal pulmonary circuit, ensuring that oxygenated blood from the placenta can reach the rest of the body. After birth, the ductus arteriosus typically closes as the baby starts breathing on its own and the lungs become functional.Rate this question:
- 42.
Vasodilation and vasoconstriction of ________ allows for variance in blood flow distribution to target organs.
Explanation
Arterioles are small blood vessels that are responsible for regulating blood flow to different organs and tissues. Vasodilation refers to the widening of these arterioles, allowing for increased blood flow to specific areas, while vasoconstriction refers to the narrowing of arterioles, reducing blood flow to certain regions. This variability in arteriole size and function enables the redistribution of blood flow according to the specific needs of different organs, ensuring that they receive an adequate supply of oxygen and nutrients.Rate this question:
- 43.
When using a blood pressure cuff to measure blood pressure, the first sound heard through the sphygmomanometer is when cuff pressure drops just below ________ pressure. The second sound is when cuff pressure drops just below ________ pressure.
Explanation
When using a blood pressure cuff to measure blood pressure, the first sound heard through the sphygmomanometer is when cuff pressure drops just below systolic pressure. This is because the systolic pressure is the highest pressure in the arteries when the heart contracts and pushes blood out. The second sound is when cuff pressure drops just below diastolic pressure. Diastolic pressure is the lowest pressure in the arteries when the heart is at rest and filling with blood.Rate this question:
- 44.
The velocity of blood moving though the capillaries is ________ than in the aorta due to the ________ in cross-sectional area.
Explanation
The velocity of blood moving through the capillaries is slower than in the aorta due to the lower cross-sectional area. As blood flows from the larger aorta into the smaller capillaries, the total cross-sectional area increases. This causes the blood to spread out and flow more slowly, allowing for efficient exchange of oxygen, nutrients, and waste products between the blood and surrounding tissues.Rate this question:
- 45.
A primary function of blood is gas exchange, since blood is responsible for carrying ________ to the tissues and carrying ________ away from the tissues. Gas exchange occurs at the level of the ________, which are lined by a single layer of simple squamous ________ cells.
Explanation
Blood is responsible for carrying oxygen (O2) to the tissues and carrying carbon dioxide (CO2) away from the tissues. Gas exchange occurs at the level of the capillaries, which are lined by a single layer of simple squamous endothelial cells.Rate this question:
- 46.
A cut ________ has even blood flow, since blood pressure is relatively constant in these vessels, whereas blood flows from a cut ________ in spurts due to pressure pulsation.
Explanation
Veins have even blood flow because blood pressure is relatively constant in these vessels. On the other hand, blood flows from an artery in spurts due to pressure pulsation.Rate this question:
- 47.
An increase in extracellular norepinephrine levels, following release by postganglionic neurons of the ________ nervous system, causes ________ of arterioles. This ________ resistance to blood flow.
Explanation
An increase in extracellular norepinephrine levels, following release by postganglionic neurons of the sympathetic nervous system, causes vasoconstriction of arterioles. This constriction increases resistance to blood flow.Rate this question:
- 48.
For the corresponding flow chart, label A, B and C for factors that influence heart rate.A. ________B. ________C. ________
Explanation
The factors that influence heart rate are the sympathetic nervous system, the parasympathetic nervous system, and the SA Node (sinoatrial node). The sympathetic nervous system increases heart rate, while the parasympathetic nervous system decreases heart rate. The SA Node is responsible for initiating the electrical impulses that regulate the heart's rhythm.Rate this question:
- 49.
Label the ventricular stages in the corresponding graph of the cardiac cycle.A. ________B. ________C. ________
Explanation
The correct answer is Ventricular filling, diastole, Ventricular Systole, systole, Early Diastole, ventricular relaxation. In the cardiac cycle, the ventricular filling occurs during diastole when the ventricles are relaxed and blood is flowing into them. Ventricular systole refers to the contraction of the ventricles, which occurs during systole. Early diastole is the phase when the ventricles are relaxing and refilling with blood after contraction. Therefore, the labeling of the ventricular stages in the corresponding graph of the cardiac cycle is correctly represented by Ventricular filling, diastole, Ventricular Systole, systole, Early Diastole, ventricular relaxation.Rate this question:
- 50.
For each period labeled "A" in the cardiac graph cycle below, is the associated valve open or closed (hint: all valves labeled "A" are in the same state)?A) ________During each period labeled "B" in the cardiac graph cycle below, is the associated valve open or closed (hint: all valves labeled "B" are in the same state)?B) ________
Explanation
For each period labeled "A", the associated valve is open. This is because during period A, the heart is in systole, which is the phase of the cardiac cycle when the ventricles contract and blood is pumped out of the heart. In order for blood to be pumped out, the valves (specifically the aortic and pulmonary valves) must be open to allow blood to flow out of the ventricles and into the respective arteries.
For each period labeled "B", the associated valve is closed. This is because during period B, the heart is in diastole, which is the phase of the cardiac cycle when the ventricles relax and fill with blood. In order for the ventricles to fill, the valves (specifically the aortic and pulmonary valves) must be closed to prevent blood from flowing back into the ventricles from the arteries.Rate this question:
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