Thinking MCQ

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  • 1/83 Questions

    Pascal's wager has what conclusion about believing in God?

    • We should believe as it has the highest expected utility if true
    • We should believe as it has the highest guaranteed utility if true
    • We should not believe, as a secular life has the highest expected utility
    • We should not believe, as a secular life has the highest guaranteed utility
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About This Quiz

The 'Thinking MCQ' quiz explores various theories and aspects of decision making, including rational decision making, bounded rationality, and fast and frugal heuristics. It assesses understanding of decision-making processes, critical for learners in psychology and cognitive sciences.

Thinking MCQ - Quiz

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  • 2. 

    Which of these is plausible to explain why people rarely behave according to rational choice theory in social dillemas?

    • All of these

    • Empathy

    • Fairness

    • Greed

    Correct Answer
    A. All of these
    Explanation
    Envy also lead to defection to prevent others from doing better than them

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  • 3. 

    Which of these is not a key feature of Tit for Tat that makes it a successful strategy?

    • Suspicious - Will lead with defection

    • Transparent - Clear what the next move will be

    • Provocable - Will punish defection

    • Forgiving - Will reward cooperation

    Correct Answer
    A. Suspicious - Will lead with defection
    Explanation
    Tit for Tat is a successful strategy because it is transparent, provable, and forgiving. However, being suspicious and leading with defection is not a key feature of Tit for Tat. This strategy is based on the principle of reciprocating the opponent's previous move, starting with cooperation. Hence, the answer is "Suspicious - Will lead with defection".

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  • 4. 

    The Ultimatum game suggests that the person receiving the money should always do what?

    • Accept any offer

    • Reject any offer

    • Reject any offer below 50%

    • Reject any offer below 25%

    Correct Answer
    A. Accept any offer
    Explanation
    To maximise their utility they should accept anything, but most people do offer 40-50% and offers below 20% are often rejected

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  • 5. 

    It was observed by Keil (1986) that children younger than 8 when told a horse had been painted to look like a zebra said what about the animals new identity?

    • It was now a zebra

    • It remains a horse

    • It is a zebra but maintains the essence of a horse

    • It is a horse but now has the essence of a zebra

    Correct Answer
    A. It was now a zebra
    Explanation
    Young children do not have the same concept of essences and hence are happy to call a painted horse a zebra

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  • 6. 

    There are three types of theory to describe decision making, which of these is not one of them?

    • Informative

    • Descriptive

    • Prescriptive

    • Normative

    Correct Answer
    A. Informative
    Explanation
    The question asks for a type of theory that is not one of the three types used to describe decision making. The three types mentioned are descriptive, prescriptive, and normative. The correct answer, informative, does not fit into any of these categories. Therefore, informative is not one of the types of theory used to describe decision making.

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  • 7. 

    A Rational decision is:

    • All of these

    • To maximise utility

    • Subjective

    • Normative

    Correct Answer
    A. All of these
    Explanation
    A rational decision is one that takes into account all available information and options, weighs the potential outcomes and consequences, and aims to maximize utility or benefit. It considers subjective factors such as personal preferences, values, and beliefs, as well as objective factors such as facts and evidence. Additionally, rational decisions can be normative, meaning they are based on societal norms, standards, or expectations. Therefore, the correct answer is that a rational decision encompasses all of these aspects.

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  • 8. 

    According to Rational Choice Theory, what should participants do during the Dictator game?

    • Pocket the money and refuse to play

    • Offer half out of fear of altruistic punishment

    • Offer the smallest amount possible (about 0.1%)

    • Offer 10% and keep 90%

    Correct Answer
    A. Pocket the money and refuse to play
    Explanation
    When suggested that a 50:50 split should occur, 76% of P's agreed to it. Those that knew the player they were with had previously not behaved altruistically were more likely to pocket the money as a form of altruistic punishment

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  • 9. 

    The availability heuristic is NOT ... 

    • Influenced by the underlying probabilities

    • Influenced by information stored in memory

    • Influenced by imagination

    • Subject to hindsight bias

    Correct Answer
    A. Influenced by the underlying probabilities
    Explanation
    The availability heuristic is a mental shortcut where people make judgments based on the ease with which examples come to mind. It is not influenced by the underlying probabilities because it relies on the ease of recalling relevant information rather than the actual likelihood of an event occurring. This means that even if an event has a low probability, if it is easily recalled or available in one's memory, it may be perceived as more likely.

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  • 10. 

    If a blue light turns on 70% of the time and a yellow light turns on 30% of the time and a P is asked to guess which light will turn on, what is the proportional correct responses that the rational decision will provide?

    • 70%

    • 50%

    • 58%

    • 100%

    Correct Answer
    A. 70%
    Explanation
    Rational choice is to always pick the blue light but people insist on PROBABILITY MATCHING and still guess the yellow light 30% of the time

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  • 11. 

    Dual process theory suggests we have 2 systems, which of the following is incorrect of system 1 responses?

    • Deliberative

    • Heuristic

    • Fast

    • Most commonly used

    Correct Answer
    A. Deliberative
    Explanation
    Its automatic, visceral and associative

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  • 12. 

    Rational Choice theory is ...

    • All of these

    • Social physics

    • The search for mathematical laws to explain social and economic phenomena

    • About 50 years old in its modern form

    Correct Answer
    A. All of these
    Explanation
    Rational Choice theory encompasses all the options mentioned in the question. It is a social science theory that applies mathematical principles to explain social and economic phenomena. It can be considered a form of social physics as it aims to understand and predict human behavior in a systematic manner. Additionally, Rational Choice theory has been around for approximately 50 years in its modern form. Therefore, all of the options are correct explanations for Rational Choice theory.

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  • 13. 

    Expected utility has 3 choice axioms (things that are always true) for it to exist as a theory, which of the following is incorrect?

    • Normative reasoning - people should always follow the highest utility

    • Transitivity - (x>y, y>z ... x>z)

    • The Sure-thing principle - if an outcome is guaranteed, it has no influence on our choice

    • Weak ordering - we must always be able to compare to utilities even if they are equal

    Correct Answer
    A. Normative reasoning - people should always follow the highest utility
    Explanation
    Normative reasoning refers to the idea that people should always follow the highest utility. However, this statement is incorrect. Expected utility theory does not prescribe that individuals should always choose the option with the highest utility. Instead, it suggests that individuals should choose the option that maximizes their expected utility, taking into account both the probabilities of different outcomes and the utilities associated with those outcomes. In other words, individuals should consider the trade-off between the likelihood of different outcomes and the value they assign to those outcomes when making decisions.

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  • 14. 

    Axelrod and Hamilton (1981) set up a competition to find the winning strategy for the iterative Prisoners Dilemma, which strategy was the winner?

    • Tit for Tat

    • Free Rider

    • Always Cooperate

    • Suspicious Tit for Tat

    Correct Answer
    A. Tit for Tat
    Explanation
    Cooperate first move and then matches opponents last move each time.

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  • 15. 

    What is another name for the tendency to continue and endeavor once an investment has been made?

    • Sunk costs

    • Inter-temporal choice

    • Conflict monitoring

    • Hyperbolic discounting

    Correct Answer
    A. Sunk costs
    Explanation
    A fallacy of temporal decision making

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  • 16. 

    If option A is £100 with 50% probability and option B is £1000 with 2% probability, which has the highest utility?

    • Option A - £50

    • Option A - £200

    • Option B - £200

    • Option B - £20

    Correct Answer
    A. Option A - £50
    Explanation
    Option A has the highest utility because it has a higher probability of occurring (50% compared to 2%) and the amount of money involved is the same (£100). Therefore, the expected value of option A is higher, making it the more desirable choice.

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  • 17. 

    Commons dilemmas are social dilemmas in which non-cooperation will destroy a resource, which of the following is not a good strategy to ensure the survival of altruism + cooperation?

    • Use incentives

    • Make sure everyone shares social values

    • Ensure communication

    • Create a shared group identity

    Correct Answer
    A. Use incentives
    Explanation
    This is a short term fix and not a change in attitude just a momentary change in behaviour and still very self serving

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  • 18. 

    What is a good example of a REAL essence over a NOMINAL essence?

    • Water is composed of H2O

    • Water is colourless

    • Water is a liquid

    • Water is universal

    Correct Answer
    A. Water is composed of H2O
    Explanation
    A good example of a REAL essence over a NOMINAL essence is when we say "Water is composed of H2O." This statement refers to the fundamental and essential nature of water, as it defines its molecular composition. It goes beyond just a superficial or nominal description of water, such as being colorless, a liquid, or universal. The composition of H2O is a real essence that is necessary for water to exist as water.

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  • 19. 

    If a participant is given £1000 and has to then choose between option A - £1000 at 0.5 or option B - £500 at 1.0, what are the expected utilities and the rational choice?

    • Option B - £1500

    • Option A - £1000

    • Option B - £500

    • They have the same expected utility so they are equal

    Correct Answer
    A. Option B - £1500
    Explanation
    We have to integrate existing assets into decisions, something people often fail to do

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  • 20. 

    Kahneman and Tversky's Asian disease problem saw people behave risk averse and risk seeking on the same question due to what effect?

    • Message framing

    • Hindsight bias

    • Probability adjustment

    • The law of small numbers

    Correct Answer
    A. Message framing
    Explanation
    The correct answer is message framing. Message framing refers to how information is presented or framed, which can influence people's decision-making and risk preferences. In the Asian disease problem, Kahneman and Tversky found that when the problem was framed in terms of lives saved, people tended to be risk averse and chose the safer option. However, when the problem was framed in terms of lives lost, people tended to be risk-seeking and chose the riskier option. This demonstrates how the framing of information can significantly impact people's risk preferences and decision-making.

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  • 21. 

    Which of the following has been shown to disappear under appropriately structured learning environments?

    • Both of these

    • Probability Matching

    • Melioration

    • Neither of these

    Correct Answer
    A. Both of these
    Explanation
    Both probability matching and melioration have been shown to disappear under appropriately structured learning environments. This means that when the learning environment is designed in a certain way, individuals tend to stop engaging in these behaviors. Probability matching refers to the tendency to match responses to the probability of reinforcement, while melioration refers to the tendency to allocate behavior in proportion to the rate of reinforcement obtained from different options. Under appropriate learning conditions, individuals are likely to adopt more optimal decision-making strategies and abandon these less efficient behaviors.

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  • 22. 

    When the trolley dilemma is presented with a personal and impersonal account, which of the following is significant and true?

    • P's who make the rational response take longer to do so in the personal version

    • P's who make the irrational response take longer to do so in the personal version

    • P's who make the rational response take longer to do so in the impersonal version

    • P's who make the irrational response take longer to do so in the impersonal version

    Correct Answer
    A. P's who make the rational response take longer to do so in the personal version
    Explanation
    This is indicative of the personal version taking longer to override the heuristic response not to take a life

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  • 23. 

    In Vokey and Brooks experiment, what did they find main effects of?

    • Grammaticality and similarity

    • Similarity

    • Grammaticality

    • There were no main effects

    Correct Answer
    A. Grammaticality and similarity
    Explanation
    This showed the effect to be additive with grammatically similar stimuli had the highest identification

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  • 24. 

    Expected Utility Theory is ...

    • A normative theory

    • A descriptive theory

    • A prescriptive theory

    • It is none of these theories

    Correct Answer
    A. A normative theory
    Explanation
    Expected Utility Theory is a normative theory because it focuses on how rational individuals should make decisions under conditions of uncertainty. It provides a framework for evaluating and comparing different courses of action based on their expected outcomes and the individual's preferences. Normative theories prescribe what individuals ought to do, rather than describing what they actually do or predicting their behavior. Therefore, Expected Utility Theory falls under the category of normative theories.

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  • 25. 

    The outcome that benefits both players in the Prisoner's dilemma is:

    • Both cooperate

    • Both defect

    • You defect, they cooperate

    • You cooperate, they defect

    Correct Answer
    A. Both cooperate
    Explanation
    However this is not the rational choice in a single instance since we should defect

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  • 26. 

    Why do people prefer £500 now rather than £1000 in ten years?

    • All of these

    • Hyperbolic discount rates

    • Uncertainty of the future

    • Temporal Proximity causes disproportional increase in attractiveness of the option

    Correct Answer
    A. All of these
    Explanation
    People prefer £500 now rather than £1000 in ten years because of a combination of factors. Firstly, hyperbolic discount rates play a role, meaning that people tend to value immediate rewards more than future rewards. Secondly, there is uncertainty about the future, and people may not be confident that they will actually receive the £1000 in ten years. Lastly, temporal proximity causes a disproportional increase in the attractiveness of the £500 option, as it is a more immediate and tangible reward compared to waiting for ten years.

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  • 27. 

    Someone who savours delayed gratification in the knowledge the reward will be greater is said to have ... ?

    • A low discount rate (k)

    • A high discount rate (k)

    • A high subjective value (V)

    • A low subjective value (V)

    Correct Answer
    A. A low discount rate (k)
    Explanation
    Someone who savours delayed gratification in the knowledge the reward will be greater is said to have a low discount rate (k). This means that they place a lower value on immediate rewards and are willing to wait for a larger reward in the future. They have the ability to delay instant gratification and prioritize long-term benefits, indicating a lower discount rate.

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  • 28. 

    Sunk Costs are a fallacy since people persist even when the current investment is now operating at a lost even when it is completed, what is an explanation for why people persist?

    • Both of these are appropriate explanations

    • Investments are treated as losses and are to be avoided or recouped (Prospect Theory)

    • We must avoid waste as a simple heuristic

    • Both these explanations are massively flawed

    Correct Answer
    A. Both of these are appropriate explanations
    Explanation
    Both of these explanations are appropriate because they provide valid reasons for why people persist even when the current investment is operating at a loss. The first explanation suggests that people may view the investment as a loss and want to avoid further losses or try to recoup their initial investment, which aligns with Prospect Theory. The second explanation proposes that people may persist due to a simple heuristic of avoiding waste, as they may feel that abandoning the investment would result in wasted resources. Both of these explanations offer plausible motivations for why people would continue despite the sunk costs.

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  • 29. 

    During the trolley dilemma, which decisions showed greater activation in the area surrounding emotion rather than working memory?

    • Personal account

    • Impersonal account

    • Rational accounts

    • Irrational accounts

    Correct Answer
    A. Personal account
    Explanation
    system 1 vs system 2 activation

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  • 30. 

    P's are asked the question 'If a test to detect a disease whose prevalence is 1/1000 had a false positive rate of 5% what is the chance a person who has a positive result actually has the disease?' Most answer 95% which is incorrect, what is the correct answer and why have they failed to make the correct deduction?

    • 2% - base rate neglect

    • 2% - melioration

    • 10% - melioration

    • 10% - base rate neglect

    Correct Answer
    A. 2% - base rate neglect
    Explanation
    The correct answer is 2% - base rate neglect. Base rate neglect refers to the tendency to ignore the prevalence or base rate of a condition when making judgments or calculations. In this case, many people incorrectly assume that the chance of having the disease is equal to the false positive rate, which is 5%. However, the correct calculation takes into account both the false positive rate and the prevalence of the disease. Since the prevalence is 1/1000, the chance of a person who has a positive result actually having the disease is much lower, specifically 2%.

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  • 31. 

    Sedlemeier and Gigerenzer (2001) examined three ways of teaching Bayesian reasoning, which of the following did not show a LONG TERM learning effect of teaching Bayesian reasoning

    • Rule training

    • Frequency tree

    • Frequency grid

    • They all elicited long term learning

    Correct Answer
    A. Rule training
    Explanation
    They all showed initial improvement but simple rule training saw people revert back to base rate neglect after a while

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  • 32. 

    Which of the following statements about probability reasoning is incorrect?

    • Tversky and Khaneman believe we deviate due to the formulation of the problem (ie not in frequencies)

    • Bayes theorem is the normative model of probability

    • Questions posed in frequentist terms allow us to reason normally

    • Deviation from Bayes theorem is irrational behaviour

    Correct Answer
    A. Tversky and Khaneman believe we deviate due to the formulation of the problem (ie not in frequencies)
    Explanation
    T + K - believe it is heuristics but Cosmides and Tooby believe it is the formulation of the problem

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  • 33. 

    Multi-dimensional scaling showed which model provided the best fit?

    • Exemplar

    • Prototype

    • Rule

    • All of them provided a fit

    Correct Answer
    A. Exemplar
    Explanation
    The prototype model over and under predicted correct classifications

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  • 34. 

    Reber (1967) demonstrated the first ideas of intrinsic rule learning that could be applied to categorisation, what was his stimulus?

    • Artificial grammar

    • Greebles

    • Exemplars

    • Conditioned rules

    Correct Answer
    A. Artificial grammar
    Explanation
    Reber (1967) demonstrated the first ideas of intrinsic rule learning that could be applied to categorization by using an artificial grammar as the stimulus. This means that he created a set of rules and patterns that were not based on any natural language or real-world examples, but rather designed specifically for the experiment. By using an artificial grammar, Reber was able to study how participants learn and categorize based on these artificial rules, providing insights into the cognitive processes involved in rule learning and categorization.

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  • 35. 

    The Allais paradox shows that people break which axiom of expected utility theory?

    • Sure-thing principle

    • Transitivity

    • Weak Ordering

    • Normality

    Correct Answer
    A. Sure-thing principle
    Explanation
    They take into account a guaranteed gain when it should be discounted from the equation, meaning P's do not choose the highest expected utility

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  • 36. 

    Deciding that all out war between two countries is less likely than all out war between two countries being caused by a third smaller country is an example of what?

    • The representativeness heuristic

    • The availability heuristic

    • Anchoring and Adjustment

    • Hindsight bias

    Correct Answer
    A. The representativeness heuristic
    Explanation
    This is the Conjunction fallacy and occurs because specific events seem more likely than general ones - hence the representativeness heuristic

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  • 37. 

    If a sample of 50 children is taken for an IQ score and the first child to be tested has an IQ of 150, what will the IQ for the whole sample be?

    • 101

    • 150

    • 100

    • 99

    Correct Answer
    A. 101
    Explanation
    This is the Law of small numbers - assuming probabilities balance out in small populations when in fact the larger the population the closer it will be to the average of the population
    This also leads to the gambers fallacy - in which people blame a run of unsuccessful outcomes on bad luck not accepting everything is independent

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  • 38. 

    If the value of a random number generator has a subsequent effect on a later estimate you make about another question, what is this heuristic called?

    • Anchoring and adjustment

    • Availability

    • Representativeness

    • Small numbers

    Correct Answer
    A. Anchoring and adjustment
    Explanation
    Anchoring and adjustment is the correct answer because it refers to the cognitive bias where an initial piece of information (the anchor) influences subsequent judgments or estimates. In this case, the value of the random number generator serves as the anchor and affects the later estimate made about another question. The individual may adjust their estimate based on the initial anchor, leading to biased judgments.

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  • 39. 

    If we believe that the cognitive architecture is not rationally functioning and decision making has evolved to fit specific function we believe in what?

    • Fast and frugal heuristics

    • Satisficing rationality

    • Optimization under constraints

    • Unbounded rationality

    Correct Answer
    A. Fast and frugal heuristics
    Explanation
    The correct answer is Fast and frugal heuristics. This is because fast and frugal heuristics refer to the idea that decision-making processes are not necessarily rational or optimal, but rather have evolved to be quick and efficient in specific situations. This perspective suggests that humans use simple rules of thumb or heuristics to make decisions, rather than engaging in complex optimization or unbounded rationality.

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  • 40. 

    Stanovich and West said that overriding initial system 1 responses requires greater supervision from system 2 and is correlated with ... ? 

    • Intelligence

    • Cooperation

    • System 1 activity

    • System 2 activity

    Correct Answer
    A. Intelligence
    Explanation
    Stanovich and West found that overriding initial system 1 responses requires greater supervision from system 2, which is the reflective and analytical part of our thinking. This ability to override impulsive and automatic responses is associated with higher levels of intelligence. Therefore, the correct answer is Intelligence.

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  • 41. 

    Why do frequencies elicit normative reasoning?

    • They are simpler than Bayesian computations

    • Humans cannot use Bayesian reasoning

    • It prevents us from using heuristics

    • It provides the base rates that we often neglect

    Correct Answer
    A. They are simpler than Bayesian computations
    Explanation
    The frequencies are simpler than Bayesian computations because they involve counting the number of occurrences of an event, while Bayesian reasoning requires calculating probabilities based on prior knowledge and updating them with new information. This simplicity makes it easier for individuals to understand and reason about frequencies, leading to normative reasoning.

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  • 42. 

    Todd and Gigerenzer (2000) had 4 separate visions of rational thinking, which of these is not one of them?

    • Bounded rationality

    • Optimization under constraints

    • Satisficing

    • Fast and Frugal heuristics

    Correct Answer
    A. Bounded rationality
    Explanation
    The final one is unbounded rationality - decisions always meet normative expectation

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  • 43. 

    There are 3 violations to the normative theory - Expected Utility theory, which of these is not one of them?

    • The Monty Hall problem

    • The Allais Paradox

    • Risk seeking vs Risk averse behaviour

    • Non integration of prospects with existing assets

    Correct Answer
    A. The Monty Hall problem
    Explanation
    The Monty Hall problem is not a violation of the normative theory - Expected Utility theory. The Monty Hall problem is a probability puzzle that demonstrates the concept of conditional probability and the benefits of switching choices. It does not directly contradict the principles of Expected Utility theory, which focuses on decision-making under uncertainty based on expected values and utility maximization.

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  • 44. 

    Free riders are a problem to every cooperating group, which of these is not a counter strategy that has evolved to counter this?

    • Gated communities

    • Kin altruism

    • Information exchange to limit free-riders

    • Dowry payments

    Correct Answer
    A. Gated communities
    Explanation
    Gated communities are not a counter strategy that has evolved to counter free riders. Gated communities are residential areas that are enclosed by walls or fences, typically with restricted access. While they may provide a sense of security and exclusivity for the residents, they do not directly address the issue of free riders within a cooperating group. Counter strategies such as kin altruism, information exchange to limit free riders, and dowry payments are more relevant in addressing the problem of free riders within a group.

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  • 45. 

    People falling for the gambler's fallacy are more likely to do so when ... ? 

    • A sequence has more alternations/ transition numbers

    • A sequence is shorter

    • They believe the trials are independent

    • They treat a sample mean as a population mean

    Correct Answer
    A. A sequence has more alternations/ transition numbers
    Explanation
    People falling for the gambler's fallacy are more likely to do so when a sequence has more alternations/transition numbers. The gambler's fallacy is the belief that if an event has not occurred for a while, it is more likely to happen in the future. When a sequence has more alternations or transition numbers, it creates a pattern that individuals may interpret as a deviation from randomness. This can lead them to believe that the outcome will revert to the opposite pattern, even though each trial is independent and the previous outcomes do not affect the future ones.

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  • 46. 

    Which of the following is correct about Prospect theory functions?

    • Value = explains utility in that it is asymmetrical and losses loom larger than gains

    • Pie = explains utility in that it is asymmetrical and losses loom larger than gains

    • Pie = a representation of objective probability

    • Value = a representation of objective probability

    Correct Answer
    A. Value = explains utility in that it is asymmetrical and losses loom larger than gains
    Explanation
    The pie function distorts objective probability and makes a subjective pie value - hence meaning 1.0 probabilities receive heavier weight in a certainty effect

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  • 47. 

    What does Regret theory consider that neither Rational Choice or Prospect do?

    • Alternative outcomes

    • Bayesian probabilities

    • Frequencies

    • The impact of memory

    Correct Answer
    A. Alternative outcomes
    Explanation
    Regret theory = compare alternative outcomes after decision to rejoice or regret dependent on the other outcomes

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  • 48. 

    In regret theory, what contaminates our subjective estimates of utility, bending the value function?

    • Anticipated emotional states

    • Incorrect probability estimates

    • Past memories

    • All of these

    Correct Answer
    A. Anticipated emotional states
    Explanation
    In regret theory, our subjective estimates of utility are contaminated by anticipated emotional states. This means that our expectations of how we will feel about the outcomes of our choices can influence our perception of the value or desirability of those outcomes. These anticipated emotions can bend or distort the value function, leading us to make decisions based on avoiding regret or seeking certain emotional states rather than purely rational considerations.

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  • 49. 

    Friedman (1998) conducted a repetitive Monty Hall dilemma but with 4 treatments which all lead to a steady learning effect to switch, which of the following is not one of those treatments?

    • The conditioning group - larger booby prize

    • The Incentive group - larger financial reward

    • The track record group - saw a history of their choices and outcomes

    • The advice group - had it explained why switching was best

    Correct Answer
    A. The conditioning group - larger booby prize
    Explanation
    These treatments all worked to increase the % switch but never to 100%, the final group was the Compare group where they could see data from a number of participants

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  • Feb 04, 2025
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